The prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its predominant components among pre-and postmenopausal Ghanaian women

Abstract

BackgroundMetabolic Syndrome (MetS) is a clump of risk factors for development of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. Menopause and age are thought to predispose women to the development of metabolic syndrome. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of MetS and identify its predominant components among pre-and postmenopausal women in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana.Two hundred and fifty (250) Ghanaian women were randomly selected for the study. They were evaluated for the prevalence of metabolic syndrome using the World Health Organization (WHO), National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III), International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and Harmonization (H_MS) criteria.ResultsOut of the total subjects, 143 (57.2%) were premenopausal and 107 (42.8%) menopausal. The study population was between the ages of 20–78 years. The overall percentage prevalence of MetS were 14.4%, 25.6%, 29.2% and 30.4% according to the WHO, NCEP-ATP III, IDF and H_MS criteria, respectively. The prevalence was found to increase with age, irrespective of criterion used. Generally, MetS was significantly higher among postmenopausal women (p < 0.05 by all criteria) compared to their premenopausal cohort, but with marked inter-criteria variations. Abdominal obesity, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, triglyceride, very low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglyceride-high density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio were significantly (p < 0.05) different among the two groups of women.Central obesity, higher blood pressure and raised fasting blood glucose were the predominant components that contributed to the syndrome in Ghanaian women.ConclusionThe higher prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal women is an indication that they are at risk of developing cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Therefore women in that group should be monitored for the two conditions and also be advised to adopt healthy lifestyles to minimize the incidence of these conditions.

Metabolic Syndrome in Apparently “Healthy” Ghanaian Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

“…The nine studies altogether included a total population of 1,559 sampled across 4 regions of Ghana. Six studies were conducted in Ashanti region [23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31], one was conducted in Eastern region [27], one was conducted in Greater Accra [24], and one study involved participants sampled from two regions (Northern and Ashanti) [29]. Five studies had a cross-sectional design and 4 were case-control studies.…”

“…Four studies adopted NCEP-ATP, WHO, and IDF criteria concurrently, three studies used only NCEP-ATP classification, one study used the NCEP-ATP along with the IDF classification, and another study adopted the WHO and NCEP-ATP classifications. Of the nine (9) studies that presented prevalence based on NCEP-ATP classification only six (6) studies [24, 25, 28–31] explicitly stated that the 2001 definition had been used whereas the remaining three studies did not specify if the 2001 classification or its revised version had been adopted [23, 26, 27]. In view of this, we combined all studies that used NCEP-ATP irrespective of version.…”

Time-restricted feeding improves insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in a mouse model of postmenopausal obesity

“…Just prior to and after menopause, women experience increased adiposity (% fat mass) that contributes to the increased incidence of obesity and the metabolic syndrome with time after menopause [1-3]. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are manifestations of the metabolic syndrome and precursors to cirrhosis of the liver, also increase following menopause [4, 5].…”

“…Considering the increased risk that obesity poses for human disease, dietary obesity prevention and intervention strategies may be effective for mitigating obesity's harmful sequelae and reducing medical and emotional burden on society. Indeed, dieting (restricting food intake to lose weight) caloric restriction (CR: energy restriction without incurring malnutrition) and intermittent fasting (IF; cycling between fasting and non-fasting periods) can reverse many of the detrimental effects of obesity [1, 11-13]. One of the most common IF protocols is alternate day fasting (ADF) consisting of 24 h of ad libitum feeding followed by 24 h of fasting or severe CR (75-90% restriction of energy needs on 1-2 days per week) that reduces circulating cholesterol and triglycerides, and decreases blood pressure, fat mass and insulin resistance [14].…”

Lipid profile, cardiorespiratory function and quality of life of postmenopausal women improves with aerobic exercise

“…Of all the changes women go through reproductively, the menopausal phase has over the years been recognized as the most critical and diverse in symptoms (Nikpour & Haghani, 2014) A permanent cessation of ovarian primary function and hormones (estrogen and progesterone) ( With the low to middle income status of the Ghanaian economy, postmenopausal Ghanaian women are battling with central obesity, high blood pressure and fasting blood sugar (Arthur et al, 2013) without the financial strength to access therapy. Most often resort to fate and faith (although not scientific) in an attempt to treat these conditions without recourse to medical care.…”