The Psychological and Physiological Consequences of Low Energy Availability in a Male Combat Sport Athlete

Langan-Evans, Carl; Germaine, Mark; Artukovic, Mario; Oxborough, David; Areta, José L.; Close, Graeme L.; Morton, James P.

doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002519

Cited by 46 publications

(59 citation statements)

References 43 publications

Supporting

Mentioning

Contrasting

Order By: Relevance

“…However, limitations include (1) assumption of specific tissue densities, which may differ in elite athletic populations; (2) residual lung volume can be a source of error, given an individual must exhale all of their air whilst remaining static for a stable value; (3) some individuals may become claustrophobic whilst underwater or not be comfortable in water; (4) the equipment is now uncommon and costly, whilst needing to be maintained, sterilised and cleaned regularly; (5) the technique cannot measure distribution of FFM or FM; (6) air can be contained within an individual’s swimsuit, skin, head, and/or body hair or internally such as in their digestive tract, all of which can be included in false estimations [ 6 ]; (7) air temperature, barometric pressure, nitrogen analyser and force sensor calibrations all contain sources of error, which could contribute to the overall measurement error [ 7 ]; and (8) is time consuming and potentially uncomfortable. Despite the fact that hydro-densitometry has long been considered a criterion assessment of body composition, the emergence of accurate surrogate techniques are now seen as more suitable alternates in applied sport [ 8 ] and in laboratory-based sport science research [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].…”

Section: An Overview Of Measurement Methodologies That Can Be Used In Applied Sport For the Assessment Of Body Compositionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The major strength of DXA is the ability to measure BMC, which is growing in importance in due to the increasing awareness of low energy availability and the consequences of this on bone mineral content [ 70 ]. Furthermore, DXA provides limb-specific estimations of FM and FFM which can be useful when tracking injured athletes and the magnitude of fat loss in weight-making athletes [ 9 , 10 ].…”

Section: An Overview Of Measurement Methodologies That Can Be Used In Applied Sport For the Assessment Of Body Compositionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…These values rebounded by 25.4% and 40.6%, respectively following a two week period of rehydration, refuelling and recovery, inclusive of total cessation of training activity [ 9 ]. In addition, when assessing another weight making athlete one day prior and following weigh in, LM and FM were both reduced by 4.0% and 5.8%, followed by a 10.0% and 4.6% rebound [ 10 ]. These values are physiologically impossible and highlight the effects that acute changes in nutrition and exercise status can have on DXA body composition data, further illustrating the importance of pre scan standardisation to enhance reproducibility of the outcome data.…”

Section: Practical Considerations When Using Dxa and Skinfolds As Measures Of Body Composition In Applied Sport Practicementioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

Come Back Skinfolds, All Is Forgiven: A Narrative Review of the Efficacy of Common Body Composition Methods in Applied Sports Practice

et al. 2021

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Whilst the assessment of body composition is routine practice in sport, there remains considerable debate on the best tools available, with the chosen technique often based upon convenience rather than understanding the method and its limitations. The aim of this manuscript was threefold: (1) provide an overview of the common methodologies used within sport to measure body composition, specifically hydro-densitometry, air displacement plethysmography, bioelectrical impedance analysis and spectroscopy, ultra-sound, three-dimensional scanning, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and skinfold thickness; (2) compare the efficacy of what are widely believed to be the most accurate (DXA) and practical (skinfold thickness) assessment tools and (3) provide a framework to help select the most appropriate assessment in applied sports practice including insights from the authors’ experiences working in elite sport. Traditionally, skinfold thickness has been the most popular method of body composition but the use of DXA has increased in recent years, with a wide held belief that it is the criterion standard. When bone mineral content needs to be assessed, and/or when it is necessary to take limb-specific estimations of fat and fat-free mass, then DXA appears to be the preferred method, although it is crucial to be aware of the logistical constraints required to produce reliable data, including controlling food intake, prior exercise and hydration status. However, given the need for simplicity and after considering the evidence across all assessment methods, skinfolds appear to be the least affected by day-to-day variability, leading to the conclusion ‘come back skinfolds, all is forgiven’.

show abstract

Section: An Overview Of Measurement Methodologies That Can Be Used In Applied Sport For the Assessment Of Body Compositionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: An Overview Of Measurement Methodologies That Can Be Used In Applied Sport For the Assessment Of Body Compositionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Practical Considerations When Using Dxa and Skinfolds As Measures Of Body Composition In Applied Sport Practicementioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Come Back Skinfolds, All Is Forgiven: A Narrative Review of the Efficacy of Common Body Composition Methods in Applied Sports Practice

et al. 2021

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Woods et al (2017) reported reduction of ~2 kcal•kgFFM -1 •day -1 in RMR and body weight in elite rowers undertaking a 4-week intensified training period, without an apparent increase in EI. We recently reported a case study on a male combat athlete cutting weight for competition during 7 weeks of EA ~20 kcal•kgFFM -1 •day -1 and 1 week ~3 kcal•kgFFM -1 •day -1 , showing a clear concomitant decrease of RMRratio under 0.9 (Cunningham, 1980) and RED-S markers falling outside clinical reference ranges (Langan-Evans et al, 2020). Similarly, in the current study, we identified seven athletes (16%) with low RMR, five of whom had multiple other RED-S markers, such as subclinical low testosterone and fT3, subclinical high cortisol and elevated LDL.…”

Section: Prevalence Of Clustered Red-s Markersmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prevalence of Surrogate Markers of Relative Energy Deficiency in Male Norwegian Olympic-Level Athletes

Stenqvist

Melin

Garthe³

et al. 2021

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The syndrome of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) includes wide-ranging effects on physiological and psychological functioning, performance, and general health. However, RED-S is understudied among male athletes at the highest performance levels. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate surrogate RED-S markers prevalence in Norwegian male Olympic-level athletes. Athletes (n = 44) aged 24.7 ± 3.8 years, body mass 81.3 ± 15.9 kg, body fat 13.7% ± 5.8%, and training volume 76.1 ± 22.9 hr/month were included. Assessed parameters included resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition, and bone mineral density by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and venous blood variables (testosterone, free triiodothyronine, cortisol, and lipids). Seven athletes (16%) grouped by the presence of low RMR (RMRratio < 0.90) (0.81 ± 0.07 vs. 1.04 ± 0.09, p < .001, effect size 2.6), also showed lower testosterone (12.9 ± 5.3 vs. 19.0 ± 5.3 nmol/L, p = .020) than in normal RMR group. In low RMRratio individuals, prevalence of other RED-S markers (—subclinical—low testosterone, low free triiodothyronine, high cortisol, and elevated low-density lipoprotein) was (N/number of markers): 2/0, 2/1, 2/2, 1/3. Low bone mineral density (z-score < −1) was found in 16% of the athletes, all with normal RMR. Subclinical low testosterone and free triiodothyronine levels were found in nine (25%) and two (5%) athletes, respectively. Subclinical high cortisol was found in 23% of athletes while 34% had elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Seven of 12 athletes with two or more RED-S markers had normal RMR. In conclusion, this study found that multiple RED-S markers also exist in male Olympic-level athletes. This highlights the importance of regular screening of male elite athletes, to ensure early detection and treatment of RED-S.

show abstract

“…Furthermore, when establishing EEE, consideration should also be given to appropriate calculation, whereby the other components of total energy expenditure (i.e. RMR and NEAT) are omitted during the time period of exercise [for a detailed description see Langan-Evans et al (2020)].…”

Section: Key Assessments For Weight Making Interventionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Nutritional Considerations for Female Athletes in Weight Category Sports

Langan-Evans

Reale²,

Sullivan³

et al. 2021

European Journal of Sport Science

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Weight making can be described as the process of reducing body mass in events where aesthetics, propulsion or the requirement to meet a specific weight category limit, are considered to be of competitive importance. Cross sectional research specifically focussed on weight category sports, has highlighted behaviours and practices that are similar in athletes of both sexes. Regardless of this and despite parallel participation in weight category sporting events, females are drastically underrepresented in studies examining body mass loss interventions across both chronic and acute timeframes. However, it has been well characterised that these types of body mass loss strategies can be causative of low energy availability, leading to consequences of female athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sports. Furthermore, female-specific body composition and physiological systems modulated by the anterior pituitary and ovarian hormones within the menstrual cycle or use of hormonal contraception, can lead to potential outcomes which need to be considered carefully, particularly when employing acute weight loss strategies that are often utilised by weight making athletes. Therefore, the aim of this article serves to review the aforementioned issues, whilst offering practical recommendations via initial assessment, chronic/acute interventions and refeeding/recovery plans to help support the implementation of body mass loss strategies in the context of weight making specifically with female athletes.

show abstract

The Psychological and Physiological Consequences of Low Energy Availability in a Male Combat Sport Athlete

Cited by 46 publications

References 43 publications

Come Back Skinfolds, All Is Forgiven: A Narrative Review of the Efficacy of Common Body Composition Methods in Applied Sports Practice

Come Back Skinfolds, All Is Forgiven: A Narrative Review of the Efficacy of Common Body Composition Methods in Applied Sports Practice

Prevalence of Surrogate Markers of Relative Energy Deficiency in Male Norwegian Olympic-Level Athletes

Nutritional Considerations for Female Athletes in Weight Category Sports

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About