The Rare Earth Elements: Demand, Global Resources, and Challenges for Resourcing Future Generations

Abstract

The rare earth elements (REE) have attracted much attention in recent years, being viewed as critical metals because of China's domination of their supply chain. This is despite the fact that REE enrichments are known to exist in a wide range of settings, and have been the subject of much recent exploration. Although the REE are often referred to as a single group, in practice each individual element has a specific set of end-uses, and so demand varies between them. Future demand growth to 2026 is likely to be mainly linked to use of NdFeB magnets, particularly in hybrid and electric vehicles and wind turbines, and also in erbiumdoped glass fibre for communications. Supply of lanthanum and cerium is forecast to exceed demand. There are several different types of natural (primary) REE resources, including those formed by high-temperature geological processes (carbonatites, alkaline rocks, vein and skarn deposits) and those formed by low-temperature processes (placers, laterites, bauxites and ion-adsorption clays). In this paper, we consider the balance of the individual REE in each deposit type and how that matches demand, and look at some of the issues associated with developing these deposits. This assessment and overview indicate that whilst each type of REE deposit has different advantages and disadvantages, light rare earth-enriched ion adsorption types appear to have the best match to future REE needs. Production of REE as by-products from, for example, bauxite or phosphate, is potentially the most rapid way to produce additional REE. There are still significant technical and economic challenges to be overcome to create substantial REE supply chains outside China.

Statistic and Isotopic Characterization of Deep‐Sea Sediments in the Western North Pacific Ocean: Implications for Genesis of the Sediment Extremely Enriched in Rare Earth Elements

“…The uniqueness of magnetic and optical properties of REY makes substitution with other elements quite difficult: a previous study estimated that the performance of REY's potential substitutes in industrial applications would be very poor, while some elements of REY are virtually impossible to substitute (Graedel et al, 2015). In the face of rapid growth of the global demand for REY (Alonso et al, 2012;Goodenough et al, 2018), a stable supply has been a critical issue across the globe.…”

Ti-Nb Mineralization of Late Carbonatites and Role of Fluids in Its Formation: Petyayan-Vara Rare-Earth Carbonatites (Vuoriyarvi Massif, Russia)

“…In general, carbonatites account for more than 50% of global rare-earth elements (REE) resources, which include Y and La-Lu [5]. REE enrichment is "most commonly found only in the latest and most highly evolved parts of a carbonatite intrusion" [6]. The accumulation of REE in late carbonatites is assumed to be controlled by fluid activity [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16].…”

Granitoid zircon forms the nucleus for minerals precipitated by carbonatite-derived metasomatic fluids at Chilwa Island, Malawi

“…A better understanding of fenite aureoles is important first to the overall hypothesis of petrogenesis of carbonatites and alkaline rocks because fenite holds important information on the amounts of alkalis and volatile elements in the original magmas and, second, because carbonatites and alkaline rocks are associated with many of the world's principal concentrations of rare earth elements (REE) and high field strength elements (HFSE) such as niobium, as well as apatite and fluorite deposits (Mariano, 1989;Berger et al, 2009;Goodenough et al, 2017;Verplanck et al, 2016;Mitchell, 2015 and citations therein). Ore-forming processes range from magmatic fractionation to hydrothermal reworking and even late-stage fluids are now known also to pervade fenite aureoles (Verplanck and Van Gosen, 2011;Dowman et al, 2017).…”