The reemergence of monkeypox as a new potential health challenge: A critical review

Afshar, Zeinab Mohseni; Rostami, Hossein Nazari; Hosseinzadeh, Rezvan; Janbakhsh, Alireza; Pirzaman, Ali Tavakoli; Babazadeh, Arefeh; Aryanian, Zeinab; Sio, Terence T.; Barary, Mohammad; Ebrahimpour, Soheil

doi:10.22541/au.165446104.43472483/v1

Cited by 16 publications

(19 citation statements)

References 46 publications

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“…It has been noted that these distinctive lesions often present first as enanthem, macular, papular, then vesicular, and pustular, as is depicted in Figure 7 [ 10 , 39 ]. These lesions will ultimately become crusted within two to three weeks [ 40 ]. Prior to the rash appearing on the skin, an individual will see lesions developing on the tongue and mouth; these lesions are called enanthem.…”

Section: Reviewmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Histopathologic analysis of the earliest stage of lesion development in humans reveals epidermal necrosis at the center of individual lesions concurrent with nascent extension into the superficial layers of the dermis [ 38 , 41 ]. It has also been observed in monkeypox-infected non-human primates that lesion pathology intensifies as pustules form, with progressive ulceration, necrosis, and interstitial hyperplasia [ 40 ]. Furthermore, edema is prominent at the margins of necrotic areas and clefts develop in interstitial spaces between cells where the fluid and cellular debris accumulates [ 20 , 38 ].…”

Section: Reviewmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Tecovirimat has been found to have specific efficacy on several orthopoxviruses, including variola, vaccinia, cowpox, ectromelia, rabbitpox, and monkeypox [ 20 ]. Tecovirimat is an oral intracellular viral release inhibitor with potential therapeutic effects on monkeypox [ 40 ].…”

Section: Reviewmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review of Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Manifestation

Kaler¹,

Hussain²,

Flores³

et al. 2022

Cureus

274

349

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As the fear of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic subsides, countries around the globe are now dealing with a fear of the epidemic surrounding the prevalence of monkeypox cases in various regions. Previously endemic to regions of Africa, the majority of monkeypox cases associated with the 2022 outbreak are being noted in countries around Europe and in the western hemisphere. While contact-tracing projects are being conducted by various organizations, it is unknown how this outbreak began. Monkeypox virus is one of the many zoonotic viruses that belong to the Orthopoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae family. Monkeypox cases received global attention during the 1970s, after the global eradication of smallpox. The smallpox vaccine provided cross-immunity to the monkeypox virus. Upon the cessation of smallpox vaccine administration, monkeypox cases became more prevalent. It was not until the 2003 US outbreak that monkeypox truly gained global attention. Despite the virus being named monkeypox, monkeys are not the origin of the virus. Several rodents and small mammals have been attributed as the source of the virus; however, it is unknown what the true origin of monkeypox is. The name monkeypox is due to the viral infection being first witnessed in macaque monkeys. Though human-to-human transmission of monkeypox is very rare, it is commonly attributed to respiratory droplets or direct contact with mucocutaneous lesions of an infected individual. Currently, there is no treatment allocated for infected individuals, however, supportive treatments can be administered to provide symptom relief to individuals; Medications such as tecovirimat may be administered in very severe cases. These treatments are subjective, as there are no exact guidelines for symptom relief.

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Section: Reviewmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Reviewmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review of Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Manifestation

Kaler¹,

Hussain²,

Flores³

et al. 2022

Cureus

274

349

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show abstract

“…In some instances, post-exposure immunisation with modified vaccinia, Ankara vaccine (live, non-replicating smallpox and monkeypox vaccine) is suggested [58]. Broken skin or mucous membranes in contact with an infected patient's bodily fluids, respiratory droplets, or scabs constitute a "high risk" exposure necessitating immediate post-exposure immunisation [59]. According to the CDC, immunisation within four days of exposure may prevent the development of sickness, and vaccination within fourteen days may minimise the severity of the condition [17].…”

Section: Therapy For Monkeypoxmentioning

confidence: 99%

Human Monkeypox: What do we know so far?

Sinpeng

2022

Int J Sci Healthcare Res

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The first known human infection of monkeypox was recorded in 1971. MPXV has been found in a number of human instances in West Africa. The majority of confirmed cases with travel histories indicated travel to Europe and North America rather than West or Central Africa, where the monkeypox virus is endemic. Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a type of Orthopoxvirus, which also includes camelpox, cowpox, vaccinia, and variola viruses. Two oral drugs, brincidofovir and tecovirimat, have been approved for the treatment of smallpox. MPXV can infect people in areas that were previously known to be free of smallpox. In 2003, MPXV-infected West African rats brought into the U.S. infected prairie dogs intended for sale in the pet business. Although there were no fatalities, the virus was of a less dangerous West African strain. Since 1970, eleven African nations have recorded human cases of monkeypox. Most cases have been recorded from rural, rainforest parts of the Congo Basin. Nigeria has seen a significant epidemic, with over 500 suspected cases, over 200 confirmed cases and an approximate 3% case fatality rate. People living in or near wooded regions may be exposed indirectly or at a low level. Consuming meat and other animal products from diseased animals that have been improperly cooked is a potential risk factor. The longest known chain of transmission in a community has increased from six to nine person-to-person infections. Monkeypox is prevented by increasing public knowledge of risk factors and teaching individuals about the actions they may take to decrease their exposure. Keywords: Human monkeypox, monkeypox virus, orthopoxvirus, viral zoonosis

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“…Monkeypox virus (MPXV) was rst found in cynomolgus monkeys taken from Singapore to Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1959. It was known to cause pox in those monkeys (Afshar et al 2022). MPXV is a highly virulent orthopoxvirus with high infectivity and mortality rates (≥ 10%).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The outbreak of Monkeypox virus in the shadow of the pandemic

Majie¹,

Saha²,

Sarkar³

2022

Preprint

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The human monkeypox virus (MPVX) was first identified in 1959. Since then, the incidence of the disease has been sporadic. The endemic regions were identified in Africa's central and western areas. However, the infection started to spread in 2017 to the non-endemic regions such as North and South America, Europe, and Asia. Since May 2022, the non-endemic areas reported 62,635 till 20th September 2022. Although the monkeypox virus has a mortality of ≥ 10%, it showed only 82 mortalities worldwide in 2022. The common symptoms include chills, fever, fatigue, and skin lesions, and the complications include secondary respiratory tract infections, encephalitis, blindness, and severe diarrhoea. The factors responsible for spreading the virus include improper handling and consumption of infected bushmeat, unprotected sexual intercourse, contact with an infected person, no smallpox vaccination, improper hygiene, lower diagnostic capacity, and strong travel history from the endemic regions. The therapeutic strategy is symptom-based treatment and supportive care. Antivirals and vaccines such as Tecovirimat, Brincidofovir, Cidofovir, Imvamune, and ACAM2000 have shown promising results. The primary purpose of the review is to perform an epidemiological study and investigate the pathobiology, diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and some associated complications of the monkeypox virus in 2022.

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The reemergence of monkeypox as a new potential health challenge: A critical review

Cited by 16 publications

References 46 publications

Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review of Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Manifestation

Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review of Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Manifestation

Human Monkeypox: What do we know so far?

The outbreak of Monkeypox virus in the shadow of the pandemic

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