The Regulation of Exosome Generation and Function in Physiological and Pathological Processes

Abstract

Exosomes, a type of extracellular vesicle with a diameter of approximately 100 nm that is secreted by all cells, regulate the phenotype and function of recipient cells by carrying molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids and are important mediators of intercellular communication. Exosomes are involved in various physiological and pathological processes such as immunomodulation, angiogenesis, tumorigenesis, metastasis, and chemoresistance. Due to their excellent properties, exosomes have shown their potential application in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of disease. The functions of exosomes depend on their biogenesis, uptake, and composition. Thus, a deeper understanding of these processes and regulatory mechanisms can help to find new targets for disease diagnosis and therapy. Therefore, this review summarizes and integrates the recent advances in the regulatory mechanisms of the entire biological process of exosomes, starting from the formation of early-sorting endosomes (ESCs) by plasma membrane invagination to the release of exosomes by fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane, as well as the regulatory process of the interactions between exosomes and recipient cells. We also describe and discuss the regulatory mechanisms of exosome production in tumor cells and the potential of exosomes used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Glial Cells as Molecular Target for Parkinson’s Disease

“…It is now evident that nAChRs not only play an important role in neuronal function and the addiction to nicotine [ 151 , 152 ] but may also serve as targets for therapeutic intervention in various neuropsychiatric/neurodegenerative disorders, including PD [ 25 , 153 , 154 ], depression [ 153 , 155 , 156 ], obsessive–compulsive disorder [ 157 , 158 ], ADHD [ 159 ], Tourette syndrome [ 160 , 161 , 162 ], mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer’s disease [ 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 ], ischemia [ 167 ], catalepsy [ 168 ], schizophrenia [ 4 , 166 , 169 ], pain [ 147 , 170 ], energy balance [ 171 , 172 ], autoimmune disorders [ 173 ], and even sleep–wake cycle dysregulation [ 174 ]. These receptors are also expressed abundantly in a variety of immune cells, including B cells, T cells, macrophages, and microglia, and are believed to contribute to the anti-inflammatory effects of nicotine [ 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 ].…”

“…It was proposed that exosomes derived from dental pulp stem cells may promote NG2-glia proliferation and differentiation and, hence, reduce tissue damage due to acute ischemic stroke [ 132 ]. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles secreted by various stem cells and are potent mediators of intercellular communication and tissue repair [ 166 , 247 ]. Recently, clinical applications of exosomes in general surgery, neurosurgery, cardiothoracic surgery, orthopedic surgery, head and neck surgery, plastic surgery, acute skin wound healing, urology, ophthalmology, and obstetrics and gynecology, and other diseases induced by ischemia, inflammation, or cancer were suggested [ 248 , 249 ].…”

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Glial Cells as Molecular Target for Parkinson’s Disease

“…It is now evident that nAChRs not only play an important role in neuronal function and addiction to nicotine [151,152], but may also serve as targets for therapeutic intervention in various neuropsychiatric/neurodegenerative disorders including PD [25,153,154], depression [153,155,156], obsessive-compulsive disorder [157,158] , ADHD [159], Tourette syndrome [160][161][162], mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer's disease [163][164][165][166], ischemia [167], catalepsy [168], schizophrenia [4,166,169], pain [147,170], energy balance [171,172], autoimmune disorders [173], and even in sleepwake cycle dysregulation [174]. These receptors are also expressed abundantly in a variety of immune cells including B cells, T cells, macrophages, and microglia, and are believed to contribute to the antiinflammatory effects of nicotine [175][176][177][178].…”

Insight into the Functional Dynamics and Challenges of Exosomes in Pharmaceutical Innovation and Precision Medicine

“…Temperature also profoundly affects the cellular uptake of exosomes, with reduced temperatures markedly impeding this process, indicating its energy-dependent nature [ 103 ]. Pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammation, or infection led cells to alter their exosome secretion and composition [ 104 ]. For example, cancer cells typically secrete more exosomes containing oncogenic factors that facilitate tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastatic site preparation [ 105 ].…”