The Rise and Fall of Turcophilism in Nineteenth-Century British Discourses: Visions of the Turk, ‘Young’ and ‘Old’

Europe and Turkey: identities in evolution. An analytical literature review

“…Drawing on essentialist assumptions based on climate and geography European authors began to perceive an irredeemable difference between the “Orient” and “Europe.” Revealing a “European self-image as indisputably civilized, progressive, liberal, and rational,” this perspective posited the Ottoman Empire as despotic, irrational, backward, fatalistic and stagnant ( Çırakman, 2001: 64 ; Yapp, 1992: 149–151 ). This shift in representations is confirmed by Edward Said’s monumental work on Orientalism which demonstrated the asymmetric power relations, that is European imperialism behind the particularly nineteenth century European Orientalist discourse which depicted the Orient as its negative “other” ( Gürpınar, 2012 ). Çırakman concludes that this negative and prejudiced image was a product of assumptions inherent in the Enlightenment discourse and Yapp emphasizes the significance of gradual secularization and the emergence of the idea of moral and material progress and civilization as central to European identity which reflects negatively on the Ottoman Empire ( Yapp, 1992: 152–153 ).…”

“…While the former draws on a wide range of sources from diplomatic letters to daily newspapers and popular literature thus covering both the elite and public perceptions ( Baleva, 2012 ; Demiraj, 2001 ; Gummer, 2010 ; Gürpınar, 2012 ), lack of an independent and widespread reading public in the Ottoman Empire for the better part of the 19 th century (until 1908 to be precise) seems to have narrowed the scope of studies to writings of bureaucrats and several elect intellectuals who were, again, active or former bureaucrats ( Aydın, 2007 ; Baykara, 2007 ; Çiçek, 2010 ; Şirin, 2009 ; Wigen, 2010 ), thus limiting the representative value of the conclusions drawn; only dealing with larger public in the second constitutional period ( Brummet, 2000 ; Köroğlu, 2007 ). There is an observable emphasis on British views on the Empire, probably owing to the accessibility of primary sources and preference for English as the language of scholarship ( Çiçek, 2010 ; Çırakman, 2001 ; Demiraj, 2001 ; Gürpınar, 2012 ). German perspectives on the Empire follow the literature on British ( Gummer, 2010 ; Vettes, 1958 ); however, there is hardly anything specific on French culture.…”

Challenging anti-Western historical myths in populist discourse: re-visiting Ottoman Empire–Europe interaction during the 19th century

“…After the 1870s, Ottoman–European relations soured again with the mounting debt the Empire accrued towards Europe starting in 1859, and the suppression of uprisings by Christian minorities generated negative publicity in Europe. The widespread publicity (led by non-other than Gladstone himself) of the suppression of Bulgarian rebels in 1875 helped turn the British public against the Ottoman Empire (Gürpınar, 2012). Although the Hamidian era (1876–1908) did not witness major conflicts between European powers and the Empire, the growing question of minorities fostered negative publicity and helped distance the Empire from Britain and France and bring it closer to Germany.…”

An Imperial Traveler: Mark Sykes and His Impressions in the Middle East through His Article and Notes in the Late 19th Century

“…Secondly, he did not refrain from expressing his views about the people he encountered during his journey in the article while maintaining his old-fashioned sympathy towards the Turks. 77 The differences in style and information between the article and his notes are not dramatically large, but show that he kept some personal comments to himself from time to time and strove to indicate how he developed and created a network of contacts in the East by interacting with minority groups there. Perhaps he anticipated a future of becoming an effective agent with his skill at integrating with the local people winning their approval.…”