The Role of Carrageenan in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and Allergic Reactions: Where Do We Stand?

Abstract

Carrageenan (CGN) is a high molecular weight polysaccharide extracted from red seaweeds, composed of D-galactose residues linked in β-1,4 and α-1,3 galactose-galactose bond, widely used as a food additive in processed foods for its properties as a thickener, gelling agent, emulsifier, and stabilizer. In recent years, with the spread of the Western diet (WD), its consumption has increased. Nonetheless, there is a debate on its safety. CGN is extensively used as an inflammatory and adjuvant agent in vitro and in animal experimental models for the investigation of immune processes or to assess the activity of anti-inflammatory drugs. CGN can activate the innate immune pathways of inflammation, alter the gut microbiota composition and the thickness of the mucus barrier. Clinical evidence suggests that CGN is involved in the pathogenesis and clinical management of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), indeed food-exclusion diets can be an effective therapy for disease remission. Moreover, specific IgE to the oligosaccharide α-Gal has been associated with allergic reactions commonly referred to as the “α-Gal syndrome”. This review aims to discuss the role of carrageenan in inflammatory bowel diseases and allergic reactions following the current evidence. Furthermore, as no definitive data are available on the safety and the effects of CGN, we suggest gaps to be filled and advise to limit the human exposure to CGN by reducing the consumption of ultra-processed foods.

The Meat of the Matter: Understanding and Managing Alpha-Gal Syndrome

“… 31 , 84 In addition, it has been proposed that carrageenan, a high molecular weight polysaccharide derived from red seaweed and which contains the galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal) epitope, may also cause IgE-mediated symptoms of hypersensitivity in a minority of patients with AGS. 85 Carrageenan is used in several food products, including dairy products, frozen desserts, canned and cured meats, emulsified sauces, jelly candies, and some powdered products. 85 While there are case reports of IgE-mediated allergic reactions to carrageenan, 85 , 86 to date, there have been no reports demonstrating that such patients are also sensitized to alpha-gal.…”

“… 85 Carrageenan is used in several food products, including dairy products, frozen desserts, canned and cured meats, emulsified sauces, jelly candies, and some powdered products. 85 While there are case reports of IgE-mediated allergic reactions to carrageenan, 85 , 86 to date, there have been no reports demonstrating that such patients are also sensitized to alpha-gal. There are also no reported cases of patients with alpha-gal syndrome experiencing severe allergic responses or anaphylaxis to carrageenan.…”

“…This may be due to the fact that the galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose moiety in carrageenan alternates with a beta-1,4-linked D-galactose sugar and may not always be exposed to the host immune system unless there is enzymatic breakdown of carrageenan by specific colonic microbes to expose the alpha-gal moiety. 85 Thus, we counsel that the majority of individuals with AGS should be able to tolerate products with carrageenan and with trace amounts of alpha-gal, such as mammal-derived glycerin, and strict avoidance is not required. 1 However, if patients remain symptomatic with these products in the diet, then as with gelatin, they should be cautious with their use or avoid these components altogether.…”

Mitigation of Memory Impairment with Fermented Fucoidan and λ-Carrageenan Supplementation through Modulating the Gut Microbiota and Their Metagenome Function in Hippocampal Amyloid-β Infused Rats

“…λ-Carrageenan is widely used as a thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer, but it was reported to stimulate the innate immunity, gut microbiota composition, and thickness of mucus barrier. On the other hand, the effect of λ-carrageenan on gut microbiota and inflammation is unknown [ 65 ]. The present study showed that λ-carrageenan intake, regardless of the MW, improved memory function and gut microbiota to reduce secondary bile acid biosynthesis degradation of toxic compounds.…”

"Out of the box� new therapeutic strategies for Crohn�s disease: moving beyond biologics

“…At the same time, the intake of fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, fish and poultry is low. Emulsifiers, important additives to better palatability in processed foods, such as maltodextrin (MDX), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) (E466/E469), carrageenans (E407), as well as other food additives have been associated with intestinal microbiome alteration and inflammation (44,45).…”