“…More generally, individual differences in academic achievement, achievement growth, and grade-point average are related to domain-general cognitive abilities (e.g., working memory; Geary et al, 2017 ; Peng et al, 2019 ) and to non-cognitive factors, such as mathematics self-efficacy ( Marsh and Yeung, 1998 ; Eccles and Wang, 2016 ; Semeraro et al, 2020 ). However, most of the learning difficulties research has focused on cognitive factors, such as poor working memory ( Geary, 1993 , 2004 ; Swanson et al, 2009a ; Peng and Fuchs, 2016 ; Koponen et al, 2017 ), although non-cognitive factors are sometimes considered ( Cirino et al, 2018 ; Devine et al, 2018 ).…”