The Role of Minerals in the Optimal Functioning of the Immune System

Abstract

Minerals fulfil a wide variety of functions in the optimal functioning of the immune system. This review reports on the minerals that are essential for the immune system’s function and inflammation regulation. We also discuss nutritional aspects of optimized mineral supply. The supply of minerals is important for the optimal function of the innate immune system as well as for components of adaptive immune defense; this involves defense mechanisms against pathogens in addition to the long-term balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory regulation. Generally, a balanced diet is sufficient to supply the required balance of minerals to help support the immune system. Although a mineral deficiency is rare, there are nevertheless at-risk groups who should pay attention to ensure they are receiving a sufficient supply of minerals such as magnesium, zinc, copper, iron, and selenium. A deficiency in any of these minerals could temporarily reduce immune competence, or even disrupt systemic inflammation regulation in the long term. Therefore, knowledge of the mechanisms and supply of these minerals is important. In exceptional cases, a deficiency should be compensated by supplementation; however, supplement over-consumption may be negative to the immune system, and should be avoided. Accordingly, any supplementation should be medically clarified and should only be administered in prescribed concentrations.

Nutrigenomic Interventions to Address Metabolic Stress and Related Disorders in Transition Cows

“…According to FDA, diets should be supplemented with selenium with a concentration up to 0.3 mg/kg [ 109 ]. Selenium deficiency in diet is associated with oxidative stress and autoimmunity [ 168 ]. Oxidative stress and autoimmunity are the hallmarks of disease conditions in transition dairy cows.…”

Tomato By-Products, a Source of Nutrients for the Prevention and Reduction of Malnutrition

“…Tomato by-products may be cheap sources of nutritionally interesting minerals to prevent malnutrition due to mineral deficiency [ 13 ]. Complex carbohydrates, also present in tomatoes, facilitate intestinal transit and can prevent diabetes mellitus thanks to their low glycemic index [ 9 ].…”

Zinc Essentiality, Toxicity, and Its Bacterial Bioremediation: A Comprehensive Insight

“…In elder adults, the supplementation of Zn (45 mg/day of Zn gluconate) was observed to reduce the number of infections, as well as strengthen their immune system via the marked increase in the concentration of Zn in the plasma, along with the lowered production of oxidative stress markers and TNF-α ( Prasad et al, 2007 ). More recent research findings demonstrate the ability of Zn to aid in the inhibition of RNA polymerase of SARS virus, via the reduction of viral replication ( Te Velthuis et al, 2010 ), which are suggestive of Zn to be potentially effective against SARS-CoV-2, and COVID-19 ( Skalny et al, 2020 ; Weyh et al, 2022 ).…”

“…However, majority of transported Zn is bound to albumin in plasma, with approximate concentration of 12–16 μm ( Rink and Gabriel, 2000 ). Furthermore, the regulation of Zn in the human body is closely associated with normal levels of cellular proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation ( Haase and Rink, 2014a ), and the production of cytokines and antibodies, thus serving a significant role in the homeostasis of innate and adaptive immune systems ( Haase and Rink, 2014b ; Weyh et al, 2022 ). The supplementation of Zn has also been recommended for the reduction of viral activity, as well as the amelioration of tissue damage and inflammation in many viral infections, including COVID-19 ( Asl et al, 2021 ; Rodelo et al, 2022 ).…”