The role of silica and alkaline earth metals with biomolecules in the biomineralization processes: the eggshell's formation and the crystallization in vivo for x-ray crystallography

The Influence of Silicateins on the Shape and Crystalline Habit of Silica Carbonate Biomorphs of Alkaline Earth Metals (Ca, Ba, Sr)

“…Several studies published elsewhere have evaluated the impact of physical parameters including temperature [8], electric fields [9], UV light [10], pH, CO 2 content and growth in solution or gels on the formation of biomorphs [11][12][13][14]. In addition, the influence of cationic additives [15] and biomolecules such as nucleic acids and amino acids in the synthesis of these biomorphs has also been recently reviewed [16,17]. During the synthesis of biomorphs, carbonate ions supplied either in situ or dissolved from the CO 2 in the environment react with the alkaline earth metal salt to precipitate the corresponding crystalline carbonate.…”

Biocrystals in Plants: A Short Review on Biomineralization Processes and the Role of Phototropins into the Uptake of Calcium

“…One of these pathways is through glycolate, which can be converted to oxalic acid. Another synthesis mechanism derives from the rupture of oxaloacetate or ascorbic acid [27,29]. The oxalic acid reacts with cations resulting in the formation of different crystals of oxalate, which has been considered to be related with the maintenance of ionic equilibrium [29].…”

“…Another synthesis mechanism derives from the rupture of oxaloacetate or ascorbic acid [27,29]. The oxalic acid reacts with cations resulting in the formation of different crystals of oxalate, which has been considered to be related with the maintenance of ionic equilibrium [29]. Plants of the Oxalidaceae family in which synthesis of oxalic acid crystals has been reported are varied; for example, Averrhoa carambola is a popular plant native to Asia, in which a high concentration of oxalic acid has been identified [38,39].…”

“…It has been described that these crystals are formed mainly in the intra-vacuolar membrane or in the chamber of specialized crystalline cells known as idioblasts [44][45][46][47][48] (Figure 1). The synthesis of crystals is associated with membranes, chambers, or inclusions found inside cellular vacuoles, as well as with proteins, such as calsequestrin, whose function is to regulate the activity of the cytosolic calcium before it is stored in the vacuoles [27,29,49]. It has been reported that the CaOx crystals are able to modify the tubules, plastids, and to enlarge the nuclei of idioblasts [50].…”

“…A unique characteristic of the synthesis of these crystals is that it is mediated by proteins [19]. Although a considerable amount of inorganic-type crystals has been reported to form mainly the cellular structure, the crystals synthetized within the cells, whose chemical composition is made of biomacromolecules, like proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and other organic molecules, are of special interest, because their presence inside the cells is bound to biological functions [19,29]. There are biominerals found in contact with these biological macromolecules, these are hybrid nanocomposites where proteins, polysaccharides (chitin, collagen and other sugars) are chemically associated with a variety of calcium salts namely calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.…”