The role of supporting and disruptive mechanisms of FT3 homeostasis in regulating the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis

Abstract

Background: Thyroid hormones are controlled by the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axis through a complex network of regulatory loops, involving the hormones TRH, TSH, FT4, and FT3. The relationship between TSH and FT4 is widely used for diagnosing thyroid diseases. However, mechanisms of FT3 homeostasis are not well understood. Objective: We used mathematical modelling to further examine mechanisms that exist in the HPT axis regulation for protecting circulating FT3 levels. Methods: A mathematical model consisting of a system of four coupled first-order parameterized non-linear ordinary differential equations (ODEs) was developed, accounting for the interdependencies between the hormones in the HPT axis regulation. While TRH and TSH feed forward to the pituitary and thyroid, respectively, FT4 and FT3 feed backward to both the pituitary and hypothalamus. Stable equilibrium solutions of the ODE system express homeostasis for a particular variable, such as FT3, if this variable stays in a narrow range while certain other parameter(s) and system variable(s) may vary substantially. Results: The model predicts that (1) TSH-feedforward protects FT3 levels if the FT4 production rate declines and (2) combined negative feedback by FT4 and FT3 on both TSH and TRH production rates keeps FT3 levels insensitive to moderate changes in FT4 production rates and FT4 levels. The optimum FT4 and FT3 feedback and TRH and TSH-feedforward ranges that preserve FT3 homeostasis were found by numerical continuation analysis. Model predictions were in close agreement with clinical studies and individual patient examples of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Conclusions: These findings further extend the concept of HPT axis regulation beyond TSH and FT4 to integrate the more active sister hormone FT3 and mechanisms of FT3 homeostasis. Disruption of homeostatic mechanisms leads to disease. This provides a perspective for novel testable concepts in clinical studies to therapeutically target the disruptive mechanisms.

Effect of Radioiodine Treatment on Quality of Life in Patients with Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: A Prospective Controlled Study

“…This is in agreement with the results of a recent meta-analysis that clinical parameters are more likely to be associated with thyroid hormone levels than with TSH levels [16]. Given increasing evidence of the shortcomings of biochemical testing and particularly a TSH-centred approach, interest in clinical markers including QoL measures has resurged [17,18]. This has been aided by the development of validated and thyroid specific QoL instruments [19,20].…”

Examining the Effects of Nutrient Supplementation on Metabolic Pathways via Mitochondrial Ferredoxin in Aging Ovaries

“…With swifter and more potent physiological effects compared to thyroxine (T4), approximately 20% of T3 is directly secreted and synthesized by the thyroid gland, while the remaining 80% is converted from T4 in circulation [12]. T3's synthesis and secretion are stimulated by the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted by the pituitary gland, rendering it more biologically active than T4, despite its lower serum levels [13].…”