The role of transcription and executive functions in writing: a longitudinal study in the transition from primary to intermediate Grades

Abstract

Learning to write is one of the great challenges children face in primary grades, requiring both transcription skills (handwriting and spelling) and executive functions (EFs; working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility). Although this claim is widely accepted, the field suffers from some limitations, including few longitudinal studies examining the joint role of transcription and EFs in the writing of school-age children. The current study aimed to fill in this gap with a twofold goal: to examine the development of transcription and EFs in Portuguese children transitioning from primary (Grade 4) to intermediate school (Grade 5); and to evaluate the longitudinal and concurrent links between transcription and EFs to text quality. The sample included 222 Portuguese students in Grade 4, who were reassessed one year later, in Grade 5. Results showed significant improvements from Grade 4 to 5 in handwriting and spelling as well as in verbal working memory and cognitive flexibility. Moreover, though spelling and cognitive flexibility in Grade 4 had longitudinally predicted text quality in Grade 5, these links disappeared when Grade 5 predictors were considered. In the final model, only transcription skills along with cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control in Grade 5 were significant predictors of text quality in Grade 5. These findings show that transcription and EFs play a role in writing and suggest that this role might be more concurrent than longitudinal.

The effect of working memory updating training on the Chinese writing ability of primary school students

“…This suggests that the transfer effect of working memory updating training is more pronounced in early childhood and school-age children. This view is indirectly supported by studies based on tracking primary school students showing that working memory is consistently a significant predictor of writing ability at the primary school stage (Guan et al, 2019 ; Rocha et al, 2022 ).…”

Relating transcription, executive functions and text quality in Grades 2–3: A cross‐lagged panel analysis

“…In this task, students were asked to copy a 9‐word sentence as quickly as possible, without making mistakes, for 90s (Limpo et al, 2018). As in previous studies (e.g., Limpo et al, 2018, 2020; Rocha et al, 2022), the sentence used was ‘O rouxinol azul fugiu do jardim porque chovia bastante’ (‘The blue nightingale ran away from the garden because it rained a lot’). The final score was the number of words accurately copied, with higher scores indicating greater handwriting fluency.…”

The Role of Executive Function in an Integrated Writing Task

“…Empirically, substantial studies have indicated the effect of EF on writing performance (e.g., Drijbooms et al, 2015; Hooper et al, 2002; McCutchen, 1996; Rocha et al, 2022; Swanson & Berninger, 1996; Vanderberg & Lee Swanson, 2007). It has been suggested that students’ overall EF performance accounted for 8% to 26.5% variance in writing performance (Arán Filippetti & Richaud, 2015; Balioussis et al, 2012; Drijbooms et al, 2015).…”

“…It has been suggested that students’ overall EF performance accounted for 8% to 26.5% variance in writing performance (Arán Filippetti & Richaud, 2015; Balioussis et al, 2012; Drijbooms et al, 2015). Longitudinal studies (e.g., Cordeiro et al, 2020; Rocha et al, 2022) have also obtained significant contribution of EF to primary school students’ written text quality. Additionally, different EF components may play different roles in writing.…”