The Roles of Declarative Knowledge and Working Memory in Explicit Motor Learning and Practice Among Children With Low Motor Abilities

Abstract

Effective learning methods are essential for motor skill development and participation in children with low motor abilities. Current learning methods predominantly aim to increase declarative knowledge through explicit instructions that necessitate sufficient working memory capacity. This study investigated the roles of declarative knowledge and working memory capacity in explicit motor learning of children with low motor abilities. We studied both acquisition performance (i.e., performance during practice) and learning (i.e., the improvement in performance from pretest to posttest). After practice with explicit instructions, children with low motor abilities showed significant learning, albeit that improvement was relatively small. However, working memory capacity and declarative knowledge did not predict learning. By contrast, working memory capacity and declarative knowledge did predict performance during practice. These findings suggest that explicit instructions enhance motor performance during practice, but that motor learning per se is largely implicit in children with low motor abilities.

Motor learning in children with developmental coordination disorder: The role of focus of attention and working memory

“…The current findings add important evidence to the increasing body of literature showing a lack, or an unexpected role of working memory for motor learning of children (Brocken, Kal, & van der Kamp, 2016;Jongbloed-Pereboom, Peeters, Overvelde, Nijihuis-van der Sanden, and Steenbergen (2015); Krajenbrink et al, 2018;van Abswoude, Nuijen et al, 2018;van Abswoude, van der Kamp, & Steenbergen, 2018). For example, in a recent study, van van Abswoude, van der Kamp et al, 2018 found only a small effect of visuospatial working memory capacity on performance during practice of an aiming task in an explicit context. However, this effect was not present for retention one day later.…”

“…Brocken et al (2016) also failed to show a role for working memory capacity on learning with an internal or external focus of attention, although they only investigated verbal working memory. Finally, in the studies of Krajenbrink et al (2018) and van van Abswoude, Nuijen et al (2018) there was also no role of working memory capacity for respectively learning over a one week period, and performance during practice, with internal or external focus instructions.…”

“…If this is also the case for therapists working with children, this may cause the children to prefer a habitual internal focus of attention that focuses on their movement coordination. Receiving feedback with an unfamiliar or non-preferred external focus may be less optimal (Maurer & Munzert, 2013;van Abswoude, Nuijen, van der Kamp, & Steenbergen, 2018), thereby placing a higher demand on working memory capacity. Matching instructions or feedback to the preference or familiarity with an attentional focus may also enhance learning in general.…”

“…Also in typically developing children, benefits of an external focus of attention were only found during or immediately after practice (Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta, & Nieto, 2015, Krajenbrink et al, 2018 or after a 24 h to 48 h delay (Brocken et al, 2016;Flores, Schild, & Chiviacowsky, 2015;Hadler, Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Schild, 2014;Thorn, 2006). Moreover, some studies did not find any differences between both attentional foci either during practice or after a short retention (Chow, Koh, Davids, Button, & Rein, 2014;Emanuel, Jarus, & Bart, 2008;Perreault & French, 2016;van Abswoude, Nuijen et al, 2018) or after a longer retention period (Krajenbrink et al, 2018). Thus, the evidence with respect to the proposed beneficial effects of an external focus for motor learning in children is presently inconclusive at best and seems to be short lived.…”

Equipment modification can enhance skill learning in young field hockey players

“…It has been argued that implicit learning is advantageous, especially for learners with relatively low motor skills and/or weak working memory. 24,25 However, not all studies confirm this. 26 In addition, implicit learning has been shown to result in enhanced resistance against the adverse effect of stress.…”