The Sanitation Syndrome: Bubonic Plague and Urban Native Policy in the Cape Colony, 1900–1909

Abstract

Infectious disease and concepts of public health, operating as societal metaphors, seem to have exercised a powerful influence on the origins and development of urban segregation in South Africa. Between 1900 and 1904 bubonic plague, threatening major centres, occasioned the mass removal of African urban populations to hastily established locations at the instigation of medical authorities and other government officials under the emergency provisions of the public health laws. Inchoate urban policy, under tentative consideration since the 1890s as economic development and social change began to stimulate black urban migration, was precipitated by this episode into specific legislation and permanent administration. Cape Town and Port Elizabeth were the two foci of this development in the Cape Colony, where the government locations at Ndabeni and New Brighton exemplify the process. These moves and the effort to consolidate them were to a large degree frustrated by practical administrative, legal, economic and human factors which have characterized the anomalies and contradictions of urban location policy ever since. A black ‘middle class’ resisted the loss of property rights and clung to aspirations of economic and social mobility or legal independence. Especially at Port Elizabeth, where independent peri-urban settlements proliferated, white officials and politicians laboured in an administrative and legal quagmire. White employers and black migrants proved only marginally amenable to location concepts modelled on the principles of quarantine. But ‘the sanitation syndrome’, equating black urban settlement, labour and living conditions with threats to public health and security, became fixed in the official mind, buttressed a desire to achieve positive social controls, and confirmed or rationalized white race prejudice with a popular imagery of medical menace. These issues of urban social order would be repeated again in connexion with such dire events as the 1918 influenza epidemic as the foundations of Union-wide policy and law were laid during and after World War I.

The Water Act, No. 54 of 1956 and the first phase of apartheid in South Africa (1948–1960)

“…There were attempts at introducing some sanitary measures to allay fears that these settlements were responsible for pandemics such as the bubonic plague in Cape Town's slums in 1902 and in Johannesburg by 1904, as well as the worldwide influenza epidemic of 1918. These measures, defined in terms of Swanson's 'sanitary syndrome' concept, had the additional effect that local authorities resorted to creating so-called 'model townships' in Klipspruit outside Johannesburg and New Brighton near Port Elizabeth (Swanson 1977;Mäki 2008, p. 294;Maylam 1995, p. 24). However, up to the early 1920s authorities dealing with informal housing on the periphery of urban areas only focused on the 'problem' from a public health perspective (Mäki, 2008, Chapts.…”

Eureka and beyond: mining's impact on African urbanisation

“…The colonial governments structured their urban policies towards: first, limiting urban growth with the intention of keeping Africans in their rural home areas; second, facilitating labour control of African migration to the city (Rakodi 1986); and third, segregating the races spatially within the city, using byelaws and the cordon sanitaire under the pretext of ensuring European public health (Swanson 1977). Urban areas were, in effect, conceptualised as an alien environment that would contaminate individual Africans and corrode the communal fabric of tribal Africa.…”

Mapping and excavating spectral traces in post-apartheid Cape Town

“…It would be a foreshadowing of how sanitation and illness would become a pretext for the removals and slum clearances of neighbourhoods in the desire to build modern cities in the twentieth century, including the fi rst removals of 'Black Africans' from District Six to the outlying Uitvlugt (later known as Ndabeni) through the Public Health Amendment Act of 1897 (Swanson, 1977;Worden et al, 1998: 210-11).…”