The self-system during childhood and adolescence: Development, influences, and implications.

Abstract

Research on the development of the self-system is briefly reviewed, with a special focus on major themes and issues related to childhood and adolescence. Important tasks and characteristics of the self-system that emerge during infancy, toddlerhood, childhood, and adolescence are described, helping to illustrate the numerous factors that influence changing perceptions of the self. Relationships between the self-system and social agents also are described, showing the influence of schooling and parental involvement on the development of the self. Examples from the authors' research on the relationships between gender and the development of self-beliefs are reviewed. They include examples of atypical development throughout the article, and conclude with a discussion regarding the implications of developmental research for clinical practice.Conceptions of self change dramatically during childhood and adolescence. Asking a 5-year old girl to describe herself might elicit a response such as "I'm a girl and I have blonde hair." When asked the same question 10 years later, she is more likely to say "I'm energetic and outgoing. I'm a good student and fun to be around most of the time, but I can be difficult." What develops that might lead to the changes in this young girl's description of herself?

Emotional well-being and discrepancies between child and parent educational expectations and aspirations in middle and high school

“…2003;Moretti & Wiebe, 1999). By the late teens, children are better able to resolve these conflicts and settle on a stable identity (Jacobs et al, 2003;Zentner & Renaud, 2007). Throughout this process, parent aspirations, child academic self-concept and performance, perception of financial resources, and relationships with parents, teachers, and peers influence child aspirations and their expectations that they will attain them (for example, Boxer et al, 2010;Destin & Oyserman, 2009;Dubow, Arnett, Smith, & Ippolity, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 71 2001;Frome & Eccles, 1998).…”

“…In middle childhood, children may begin to adopt the aspirational beliefs of their parents -children of parents who convey the message that their children can accomplish certain goals internalise these goals for themselves (see Bandura et al, 2001;Jacobs, Bleeker, & Constantino, 2003). Neuenschwander et al (2007) find among 12-year-olds that parent perceptions influence student self-concept, which influences achievement, and that these relations hold across both American and Swiss samples.…”

“…As children consider their options and the practicality of this aspiration, they may determine that their expected level of educational attainment is below college and there may be a discrepancy (see Beal & Crockett, 2010;Cook, Church et al, 1996;Kirk et al, 2011). Although it would seem that as students age and become more realistic (see Cook et al, 1996) there may be a greater gap between their expectations and parents' aspirations for them, the conflicts and negotiations of early adolescence (see Fuligni & Eccles, 1993), and the process of stabilisation during later adolescence (see Jacobs et al, 2003), may result in comparatively greater discrepancies that later resolve. Regardless of whether discrepancies are more likely in early or late adolescence, the effect of such a discrepancy on child outcomes, specifically well-being, may vary by age.…”

Children's perceptions of the relationship with the teacher: Associations with appraisals and internalizing problems in middle childhood

“…As children grow older and get confronted with the challenges of middle childhood, teachers are the primary figures children can turn to for guidance and help (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). In this developmental span, children increasingly apply abstract thinking to a range of problems, which not only makes them able to make more complex reasoning about social situations, but also puts more tension on their self-evaluations and increases the pressure on autonomous functioning and living by the social rules (Jacobs, Bleeker, & Constantino, 2003;Kalish & Shiverick, 2004). Having favorable relationships with teachers in school settings may support children's confidence to approach these challenges within the school setting (Murray & Greenberg, 2000).…”

The STRIVE-ONR Project: Stress Resistance in Virtual Environments

“…Through the mechanism of self-concept, attachment appears to foster intrapersonal resilience factors. For instance, self-concept has been found to be closely related with resilient traits such as self-esteem and self-efficacy (Jacobs, Bleeker, & Constantino, 2003;Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002;Troisi, Massaroni, & Cuzzolaro, 2005).…”