The Spacing Effect Depends on an Encoding Deficit, Retrieval, and Time in Working Memory: Evidence

Abstract

The spacing effect in list learning occurs because identical massed items suffer encoding deficits and because spaced items benefit from retrieval and increased time in working memory. Requiring the retrieval of identical items produced a spacing effect for recall and recognition, both for intentional and incidental learning. Not requiring retrieval produced spacing only for intentional learning because intentional learning encourages retrieval. Once-presented words provided baselines for these effects. Next, massed and spaced word pairs were judged for matches on their first three letters, forcing retrieval. The words were not identical, so there was no encoding deficit. Retrieval could and did cause spacing only for the first word of each pair; time in working memory, only for the second.

Event memory: A theory of memory for laboratory, autobiographical, and fictional events.

“…In the laboratory studies, this issue was not ignored; changes in the environment, the internal state of the subject, and the context of the surrounding material were all considered in theories of how the repetition and spacing of individual presentations affected later episodic memory for the occurrence of an item (e.g., Braun & Rubin, 1998; Glenberg, 1979; Watkins & Kerkar, 1985). Within the autobiographical memory literature, Barsalou (1988) provided another approach to examining repeated events by extending the concept of basic levels in knowledge (Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, & Boyesbraem, 1976) to events.…”

The influence of learning methods on collaboration: Prior repeated retrieval enhances retrieval organization, abolishes collaborative inhibition, and promotes post-collaborative memory.

“…Considerable evidence shows that repeated study improves memory (e.g., Braun & Rubin, 1998;Crowder, 1976;Greene, 1989). Classic work by Rundus ( 1971 ) has further shown that repetition of words promotes more rehearsals of those words, and increased rehearsals are associated with better organization of the words.…”

Using Spaced Learning Principles to Translate Knowledge into Behavior: Evidence from Investigative Interviews of Alleged Child Abuse Victims

“…It is well-established in educational fields that concentrated instruction that takes place in a short period of time may have little effect on long-term retention (e.g., Bellezza & Young, 1989;Braun & Rubin, 1998;Challis, 1993). Students who 'cram' might do well on an exam that takes place shortly after the cramming session, but retain little of the information over long periods of time (Santrock & Halonen, 2002).…”