The spectrum of sepsis-associated encephalopathy: a clinical perspective

Abstract

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy is a severe neurologic syndrome characterized by a diffuse dysfunction of the brain caused by sepsis. This review provides a concise overview of diagnostic tools and management strategies for SAE at the acute phase and in the long term. Early recognition and diagnosis of SAE are crucial for effective management. Because neurologic evaluation can be confounded by several factors in the intensive care unit setting, a multimodal approach is warranted for diagnosis and management. Diagnostic tools commonly employed include clinical evaluation, metabolic tests, electroencephalography, and neuroimaging in selected cases. The usefulness of blood biomarkers of brain injury for diagnosis remains limited. Clinical evaluation involves assessing the patient's mental status, motor responses, brainstem reflexes, and presence of abnormal movements. Electroencephalography can rule out non-convulsive seizures and help detect several patterns of various severity such as generalized slowing, epileptiform discharges, and triphasic waves. In patients with acute encephalopathy, the diagnostic value of non-contrast computed tomography is limited. In septic patients with persistent encephalopathy, seizures, and/or focal signs, magnetic resonance imaging detects brain injury in more than 50% of cases, mainly cerebrovascular complications, and white matter changes. Timely identification and treatment of the underlying infection are paramount, along with effective control of systemic factors that may contribute to secondary brain injury. Upon admission to the ICU, maintaining appropriate levels of oxygenation, blood pressure, and metabolic balance is crucial. Throughout the ICU stay, it is important to be mindful of the potential neurotoxic effects associated with specific medications like midazolam and cefepime, and to closely monitor patients for non-convulsive seizures. The potential efficacy of targeted neurocritical care during the acute phase in optimizing patient outcomes deserves to be further investigated. Sepsis-associated encephalopathy may lead to permanent neurologic sequelae. Seizures occurring in the acute phase increase the susceptibility to long-term epilepsy. Extended ICU stays and the presence of sepsis-associated encephalopathy are linked to functional disability and neuropsychological sequelae, underscoring the necessity for long-term surveillance in the comprehensive care of septic patients.

Association of Sepsis With Neurologic Outcomes of Adult Patients Treated With Venoarterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygnenation

“…Previous studies investigating EEG alterations in sepsis identified that a slower background rhythm in the delta or theta frequencies was observed in 50% of patients and that the absence of reactivity was an independent predictor of mortality ( 9 ).…”

“…Sepsis is associated with neurologic complications, both in the acute phase and in the long term ( 9 – 11 ).…”

Ferroptosis-related exosomal non-coding RNAs: promising targets in pathogenesis and treatment of non-malignant diseases

“…Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a severe neurological condition linked to sepsis, characterized by altered cognitive function and a range of symptoms from delirium to coma ( Sonneville et al, 2023 ). In a rat sepsis model, sepsis induced blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage and activated ferroptosis in neurons.…”

Cefepime-induced neurotoxicity in non-critically ill medical patients: a retrospective cohort study

“…Cefepime-induced neurotoxicity was defined based on the following one or more symptoms experienced by a patient after cefepime initiation: seizure, altered mental status, myoclonus, agitation and delirium [18]. Creatinine clearance calculation was made by the Cockroft-Gault equation [19].…”