The State of Art of Extracellular Traps in Protozoan Infections (Review)

Abstract

Protozoan parasite infection causes severe diseases in humans and animals, leading to tremendous economic and medical pressure. Natural immunity is the first line of defence against parasitic infection. Currently, the role of natural host immunity in combatting parasitic infection is unclear, so further research on natural host immunity against parasites will provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of related parasitic diseases. Extracellular traps (ETs) are an important natural mechanism of immunity involving resistance to pathogens. When immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages are stimulated by external pathogens, they release a fibrous network structure, consisting mainly of DNA and protein, that can capture and kill a variety of extracellular pathogenic microorganisms. In this review, we discuss the relevant recently reported data on ET formation induced by protozoan parasite infection, including the molecular mechanisms involved, and discuss the role of ETs in the occurrence and development of parasitic diseases.

Evaluation of in vitro colonisation and immunomodulation of Lactiplantibacillus plantarumL3 microcapsules after subjected to yoghurt storage

“…Macrophages are important immune cells which participate in innate and acquired immune responses (Plaza‐Diaz et al ., 2019; Zhang et al ., 2021). Macrophages can be activated and eventually develop into mature macrophages after stimulated by lipoteichoic acid (LTA), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), endotoxin and so on, which play an important role in modulating the body's immune response through releasing TNF‐α, IL‐6, IL‐1β, IL‐10 and other signalling molecules (Orecchioni et al ., 2019; Hasenmajer et al ., 2020).…”

Leishmaniasis: Immune Cells Crosstalk in Macrophage Polarization

“…In addition, granule contents such as lytic enzymes, antimicrobial peptides, and proteases can also degrade the parasite direct or indirectly and control infection [ 112 , 116 ]. Finally, NETs, composed of DNA, histones, and granule proteins, form web-like structures that can trap and kill pathogens, including Leishmania parasites [ 117 , 118 ].…”

Cholinergic Polarization of Human Macrophages

“…For comprehensive information on macrophage polarization during viral infections, particularly in noncholinergic settings, we highly recommend consulting the insightful reviews authored by Yu et al [30] and Atmeh et al [37]. Likewise, for information concerning macrophage polarization processes during bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections, please refer to the reviews by Benoit et al [38], Xie et al [39], and Zhang et al [40], respectively.…”