The Structure and Function of the Yeast Cell Wall, Plasma Membrane and Periplasm

Microorganisms (bacteria, yeast, and microalgae) are a promising resource for products of high value such as nutrients, pigments, and enzymes. The majority of these compounds of interest remain inside the cell, thus making it necessary to extract and purify them before use. This review presents the challenges and opportunities in the production of these compounds, the microbial structure and the location of target compounds in the cells, the different procedures proposed for improving extraction of these compounds, and pulsed electric field (PEF)‐assisted extraction as alternative to these procedures. PEF is a nonthermal technology that produces a precise action on the cytoplasmic membrane improving the selective release of intracellular compounds while avoiding undesirable consequences of heating on the characteristics and purity of the extracts. PEF pretreatment with low energetic requirements allows for high extraction yields. However, PEF parameters should be tailored to each microbial cell, according to their structure, size, and other factors affecting efficiency. Furthermore, the recent discovery of the triggering effect of enzymatic activity during cell incubation after electroporation opens up the possibility of new implementations of PEF for the recovery of compounds that are bounded or assembled in structures. Similarly, PEF parameters and suspension storage conditions need to be optimized to reach the desired effect. PEF can be applied in continuous flow and is adaptable to industrial equipment, making it feasible for scale‐up to large processing capacities.

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Section: Microbial Structure and The Location Of Target Compoundsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…A number of important active enzymes are located in this space. Yeast cells likewise possess a cytoplasmic membrane composed mainly of a bilayer of phospholipids with functional proteins embedded (Stewart, 2017). Yeasts have vacuoles, which are organelles containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution.…”

Section: Yeastmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pulsed electric field‐assisted extraction of valuable compounds from microorganisms

Martínez

Delso

Álvarez

et al. 2020

Comp Rev Food Sci Food Safe

138

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“…The cell wall is 15-30% of the dry weight of the yeast cell (Orlean 1997). It is 92 mainly comprised of an inner layer made of polysaccharides and an outer scaffold made of 93 mannoproteins (Klis, et al 2002;Orlean, 2012;Stewart & Stewart, 2018). The mannoproteins with β-1,3 94 glucans, and β-1,6 glucans, form the major components of the cell wall; with chitin forming non-covalent 95 bonds with some glucans as a minor component.…”

Section: Introduction 41mentioning

confidence: 99%

Resistance Mechanisms ofSaccharomyces cerevisiaeto Commercial Formulations of Glyphosate Involve DNA Damage Repair, the Cell Cycle, and the Cell Wall Structure

Ravishankar¹,

Pupo²,

Gallagher

2020

G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics

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The use of glyphosate-based herbicides is widespread and despite their extensive use, their effects are yet to be deciphered completely. The additives in commercial formulations of glyphosate, though labeled inert when used individually, have adverse effects when used in combination with other additives along with the active ingredient. As a species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae has a wide range of resistance to glyphosate-based herbicides. To investigate the underlying genetic differences between sensitive and resistant strains, global changes in gene expression were measured, when yeast were exposed to a glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH). Expression of genes involved in numerous pathways crucial to the cell’s functioning, such as DNA replication, MAPK signaling, meiosis, and cell wall synthesis changed. Because so many diverse pathways were affected, these strains were then subjected to in-lab-evolutions (ILE) to select mutations that confer increased resistance. Common fragile sites were found to play a role in adaptation to resistance to long-term exposure of GBHs. Copy number increased in approximately 100 genes associated with cell wall proteins, mitochondria, and sterol transport. Taking ILE and transcriptomic data into account it is evident that GBHs affect multiple biological processes in the cell. One such component is the cell wall structure which acts as a protective barrier in alleviating the stress caused by exposure to inert additives in GBHs. Sed1, a GPI-cell wall protein, plays an important role in tolerance of a GBH. Hence, a detailed study of the changes occurring at the genome and transcriptome levels is essential to better understand the effects of an environmental stressor such as a GBH, on the cell as a whole.

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“…The yeast cell wall is 15-30% of the dry weight of the cell (Orlean 1997). The cell wall is mainly comprised of an inner layer made of polysaccharides and an outer scaffold made of mannoproteins (Klis, et al 2002;Orlean, 2012;Stewart & Stewart, 2018). The mannoproteins, β-1,3 glucans and β-1,6 glucans form the major components of the cell wall, with chitin forming non-covalent bonds with some glucans as a minor component.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The cell wall is highly dynamic in nature and it can adapt to various physiological and morphological conditions (Aguilar-Uscanga and François 2003). The cell wall functions to stabilize internal osmotic pressure, protect the cell against mechanical injury and chemical stress, maintain the cell shape, and provide a scaffold for glycoproteins (Stewart and Stewart 2018). The outer protein layer of the cell wall contains at least 70 proteins, which may vary depending on the environment and the type of stressors the cells are exposed to (De Groot et al 2005;Zlotnik et al 1984).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of Commercial Formulations of Glyphosate on Saccharomyces Cerevisiae

Shankar¹

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Commercial formulations of glyphosate are among the most extensively used herbicides around the world. The active ingredient, glyphosate, targets the aromatic amino acid pathway. This pathway is absent in mammals, resulting in low toxicity. Different formulations contain varying adjuvants and surfactants, whose synergistic effects are yet to be extensively studied at the cellular level. In this study, I tested multiple commercial formulations that showed a variation in growth phenotype among different yeast strains. To gain a better understanding of response and resistance mechanisms at the genome and transcriptome level, I carried out an in-lab evolution study, along with a transcriptome analysis on exposure to a commercial formulation of glyphosate. Overall, my findings helped identify routes of transport of glyphosate in and out of the cell. The additives in these herbicides were found to have effects on the cell wall, cell cycle regulation, transposable elements, and mitochondrial function. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Jennifer Gallagher, for being incredibly supportive for the past five years. Throughout my PhD, she provided insightful suggestions and gave me the freedom to steer my project in the direction I desired. As much knowledge as she has imparted, she has also been instrumental in helping me be a better version of myself. I have learned to stand up for myself, work hard and have a voice, and for that I owe it to her completely. I want to thank her for being the advisor who pushed me to be better and believed in me even when I didn't believe I could do it.

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The Structure and Function of the Yeast Cell Wall, Plasma Membrane and Periplasm

Cited by 21 publications

References 98 publications

Pulsed electric field‐assisted extraction of valuable compounds from microorganisms

Pulsed electric field‐assisted extraction of valuable compounds from microorganisms

Resistance Mechanisms ofSaccharomyces cerevisiaeto Commercial Formulations of Glyphosate Involve DNA Damage Repair, the Cell Cycle, and the Cell Wall Structure

Effects of Commercial Formulations of Glyphosate on Saccharomyces Cerevisiae

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