The subjective experience of acute, experimentally-induced Salvia divinorum inebriation

Abstract

This study examined the overall psychological effects of inebriation facilitated by the naturally-occurring plant hallucinogen Salvia divinorum using a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Thirty healthy individuals self-administered Salvia divinorum via combustion and inhalation in a quiet, comfortable research setting. Experimental sessions, post-session interviews, and 8-week follow-up meetings were audio recorded and transcribed to provide the primary qualitative material analyzed here. Additionally, post-session responses to the Hallucinogen Rating Scale provided a quantitative groundwork for mixed-methods discussion. Qualitative data underwent thematic content analysis, being coded independently by three researchers before being collaboratively integrated to provide the final results. Three main themes and 10 subthemes of acute intoxication emerged, encompassing the qualities of the experience, perceptual alterations, and cognitive-affective shifts. The experience was described as having rapid onset and being intense and unique. Participants reported marked changes in auditory, visual, and interoceptive sensory input; losing normal awareness of themselves and their surroundings; and an assortment of delusional phenomena. Additionally, the abuse potential of Salvia divinorum was examined post hoc. These findings are discussed in light of previous research, and provide an initial framework for greater understanding of the subjective effects of Salvia divinorum, an emerging drug of abuse.

Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review.

“…However, concerns remain about safety and toxicity of ibogaine, tempering the widespread implementation of ibogaine research and treatment for the time being (Alper et al, 2012; Hoelen et al, 2009). Preclinical data and basic human research on Salvinorin A (SA) suggest an important role for the Kappa opioid receptor system in modulating addiction, mood, and consciousness (Addy et al, 2012; 2015; Freeman et al, 2014; Johnson et al, 2011; 2016); though clinical research has yet to provide evidence for therapeutic use of SA, which remains an important direction for future research (Butelman & Kreek, 2015; Chavkin, 2011). Cannabis and the cannabinoids have shown therapeutic value as a treatment for chronic pain, spasticity in multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy induced nausea (Whiting et al, 2015), with a number of other conditions such as cancer, epilepsy, sleep disorders, and PTSD implicated as possible targets for cannabis-based treatments.…”

“…However, these scales often focus on particular qualities or features of the drug experience such as intensity, affective response, feelings of unity, or a sense of oceanic boundlessness, to the detriment of other effects that are not specifically queried. Thus, while such scales have been helpful in quantifying some aspects of hallucinogens’ subjective effects, the variability of responses to hallucinogens make this an ideal area for qualitative approaches, which allow participants to describe experiences in their own words (Addy et al, 2015; Gasser et al, 2014b). By expanding on current methodologies of studying subjective drug effects, we may gain a more nuanced and well-formulated understanding of the role of mystical and other types of drug experiences in hallucinogen-facilitated treatments.…”

“…None of these studies reported serious adverse events or sustained negative effects. Inhaled SA leads to acute psychotomimetic effects (Ranganathan et al, 2012), intense perceptual alterations (Addy, 2012; Addy et al, 2015; MacLean et al, 2013; Ranganathan et al, 2012), dissociative effects (MacLean et al, 2013; Maqueda et al, 2015), elevated cortisol and prolactin, and decreased resting state EEG spectral power (Ranganathan et al, 2012). Peak plasma levels of inhaled SA were found to occur 2 minutes after inhalation, and to directly correspond with participant and observer ratings of subjective effects (Johnson et al, 2016).…”

Looking for the Self: Phenomenology, Neurophysiology and Philosophical Significance of Drug-induced Ego Dissolution

“…However, there is evidence that salvinorin-A and other selective KOR agonists such as enadoline can induce ego dissolution experiences (Pfeiffer et al, 1986; Walsh et al, 2001; González et al, 2006; Johnson et al, 2011). A recent qualitative analysis of the subjective reports of 30 healthy volunteers found that 37% reported experiencing alterations in their self-awareness with depersonalization-like feelings, and 17% described letting go of their sense of self after the administration of salvinorin-A; 20% also reported a loss of the sense of bodily ownership (Addy et al, 2015). Another recent study suggested that the subjective effects of salvinorin-A, unlike those of serotoninergic hallucinogens, involve intense somatic effects and have a strong dissociative component.…”

The effects of trauma on brain and body: A unifying role for the midbrain periaqueductal gray

“…Under this model, the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray is hypothesized to project to the pons, thus alleviating the sensation of pain and having a secondary effect of perturbing conscious processing (Bracha, ; Nuseir et al, ; for a review, see Lanius et al, ). These perturbations in conscious processing are thought to reflect the dysfunction of endogenous kappa‐opioid receptor binding (Addy, Garcia‐Romeu, Metzger, & Wade, ; Stiefel et al, ). Kappa‐opioid receptors are implicated predominantly in the expression of hyporeactivity, hypotension, bradycardia, and reduced body temperature following stimulation (chemical or electrical) of the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray in the rodent brain (Cristina‐Silva, Martins, Gargaglioni, & Bícego, ; Keay et al, ; Twardowschy & Cysne Coimbra, ).…”