The Toxicological Geochemistry of Earth Materials: An Overview of Processes and the Interdisciplinary Methods Used to Understand Them

Abstract

Table 1. (continued) Material Examples of potential exposure sources Primary exposure routes Health effects References Volcanic ash Atmospheric particulates generated by eruptions. Natural and anthropogenic disturbance of volcanic ash deposits, such as earthquakes, landslides, construction activities. Inhalation. Irritation of respiratory tract; asthma; potential effects of crystalline silica within ash. Weinstein and Cook (2005), and their references. Volcanic gases, vog, laze Sulfur dioxide, hydrogen fl uoride, hydrogen chloride, other acid gases emanating from active volcanoes. Acidic aerosol droplets formed when hot lava contacts seawater and causes it to boil. Inhalation, contact with exposed mucous membranes or moist skin. Irritation of eyes, throat, respiratory tract; ulceration of mucous surfaces. Effects largely tied to acidity of the gases and droplets. If gases are in suffi ciently high concentration, toxic effects can also result. Weinstein and Cook (2005), and their references. Wildfi re smoke, and ash Particulate matter (including smoke, ash, and fi ne soil particulates) and gases generated by forest fi res. Inhalation. Asthma, irritation of respiratory tract; possible increased susceptibility to infection of respiratory system; possible long term increased cancer risk. Most studies have focused on organic constituents of smoke; less work has been done on mineral particles and heavy metals in smoke.

Mineralogy of mine waste at the Vermont Asbestos Group mine, Belvidere Mountain, Vermont

“…The fiber size of asbestos, including chrysotile, may also have an impact on the malignancy of asbestos (ATSDR 2003;Fattman et al 2004;Plumlee et al 2006). The range of chrysotile fiber lengths in the waste piles at the site (<5 µm to >5 mm) spans the entire range of lengths that have been investigated in studies of laboratory animals and humans.…”

“…Additional controversy surrounds the relative toxicity of long vs. short fibers. Numerous studies demonstrate that short fibers are cleared more effectively from the lungs than longer fibers; however, other studies suggest that shorter fibers can travel deeper into respiratory systems, making them more problematic (ATSDR 2003;Fattman et al 2004;Plumlee et al 2006). Thus, knowledge of the mineralogical character of asbestos minerals at specific sites is important.…”

Air Quality in Mining Areas: The Case of Stratoni, Chalkidiki, Greece

“…It is well-known that due to differential toxicity, various minerals have different impact on human health when inhaled. According to Plumlee et al (2006), Pb as a constituent of cerussite (a very acid-soluble lead carbonate), Pb oxides, and Pb sorbed onto atmospheric aerosols generated by lead-zinc smelting is substantially more bioaccessible than Pb as a major constituent of galena and various lead-phosphate minerals. Consequently, the dominant presence of galena in the dust acts more positively for the environment rather than other Pb-minerals.…”

“…The mineralogy, chemistry, solubility and oxidation state of the inhaled particles strongly influence human health effects (Posfai & Molnar, 2000;Plumlee et al, 2006).…”

Use of simulated epithelial lung fluid in assessing the human health risk of Pb in urban street dust

“…Inhalable particulate matter could be inhaled through the nose and thus the fate of inhaled particulates depends on the nature of the physiological fluids and physiochemical properties of the particulates. The inhalable particle size fraction (aerodynamic diameters b10 μm) penetrates, deposits and is retained in different compartments of the human respiratory tract with the larger components commonly found in the nasopharynx and tracheobronchial region whilst the finer (b1-2 μm) particles are deposited in the deepest region (alveolar) (Lippmann and Albert, 1969;Gokhale and Patil, 2004;Plumlee et al, 2006). An understanding of the respiratory compartments and their functions, as well as chemical composition is fundamental in formulating fluids that truly represent the respiratory system.…”