“…Unlike international initial teacher education, which is mainly formal and degree-awarding, international in-service teacher education is usually short-term and non-/informal, because of the inflexibility of teachers’ work schedules (He et al, 2017, p. 148). This kind of education includes, for instance, study tours (Patterson, 2015), teacher exchange (Biasutti et al, 2021), teaching abroad and commissioned degree programs (Juusola & Räihä, 2018), immersion programs (Gong et al, 2022), and short-term study modules (Wang et al, 2023), among others. That is, inconsistent categorization and nomenclature create “chaos” in international education research (Knight, 2016).…”