The UK National Homicide Therapeutic Service: A Retrospective Naturalistic Study Among 929 Bereaved Individuals

Abstract

Homicidal bereavement puts survivors at risk of developing a broad range of lasting and severe mental health problems. Previous research has often relied on relatively small and homogenous samples. Still, little is known about what factors influence the expression of symptoms following homicidal bereavement. Preventive and curative treatments often do not consider the complex coherence between the emotional, judicial, financial, and societal challenges that likely arise following a homicide. Despite the severity of its consequences on mental health, no gold standard for the preventative and curative treatment of mental health issues in homicide survivors exists. We aimed to introduce a time-limited, traumatic grief-focused outreaching model of care designed specifically for homicide survivors, and to examine its potential effectiveness. Furthermore, we aimed to investigate what factors influence the severity of mental health problems and response to treatment. In the current study, self-reported data on five different outcome measures, namely, symptoms of posttraumatic stress, prolonged grief, depression, anxiety, and functional impairment were available from 929 homicidally bereaved treatment receiving adults. We used Latent Growth Modeling to analyze our repeated measures data and to classify individuals into distinct groups based on individual response patterns. Results showed that the current model of care is likely to be effective in reducing mental health complaints following homicidal bereavement. Having a history of mental illness, being younger of age and female, and having lost either a child or spouse consistently predicted greater symptom severity and functional impairment at baseline. For change in symptom severity and functional impairment during treatment, having a history of mental illness was the only consistent predictor across all outcomes. This study was limited by its reliance on self-reported data and cross-sectional design without a control group. Future prospective, longitudinal research across different cultures is needed in order to

A framework of meaning attribution following loss

“…Does the loss also mean a loss of confidence in the legal system, the government or society? British data show that a slow trial or the absence of a judgement is accompanied by a slower recovery during specialized treatment of surviving relatives after murder (Soydas et al, 2020). Armed conflict situations are often characterized by the absence of a functioning juridical system, forcing people to migrate with the associated political, administrative and economic constraints alongside loss of culture and social support.…”

An Ecological Review of Homicide Bereavement’s Risk Factors: Implications for Future Research

“…Studies focusing on the individual level noted the following HB risk factors: prior mental health or emotional fluctuation (Alves-Costa, Hamilton-Giachritsis, & Halligan, 2021; Soydas et al, 2020; Williams et al, 2012); immigration (Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, & van de Putte, 2017); prior health or physical problems (Currier et al, 2015; Soydas et al, 2020; Williams et al, 2012); low socioeconomic status (Douglas et al, 2021); belonging to an ethnic or racial minority (Douglas et al, 2021; Kaplow et al, 2021; Kassing et al, 2021; Keesee et al, 2008; McDevitt-Murphy et al, 2012; Williams et al, 2012); prior victimization or stressful life events (Douglas et al, 2021; Kassing et al, 2021; Park & Benore, 2004; Soydas et al, 2021); female gender, with mothers and sisters grieving more intensely over time than fathers and brothers (Dyregrov et al, 2015; Kaplow et al, 2021; Kassing et al, 2021; Soydas et al, 2020, 2021); and being younger (Murphy, Johnson, Wu, et al, 2003; Pfeffer et al, 2007; Stanley et al, 2019). Additional HB risk factors noted as having more pathogenic effects include negative cognitions (Alves-Costa, Hamilton-Giachritsis, & Halligan, 2021; Bailey, Sharma, et al, 2013; Boelen et al, 2015), attachment anxiety and avoidance (Currier et al, 2015), a sense of social disconnection (Smith et al, 2020), lesser ability to construct meaning (Zakarian et al, 2019), and low level of spirituality and religiosity (Boulware & Bui, 2016; Burke et al, 2011; Currier et al, 2013; Johnson, 2021; Johnson & Zitzmann, 2020, 2021; Lee et al, 2020; Mastrocinque et al, 2020).…”

“…Various studies have indicated that a homicide’s characteristics have an influence on HB. The following homicide-related factors have been reported as HB risk factors: close familial relations with the victim (Alisic, 2018; Alves-Costa, Hamilton-Giachritsis, & Halligan, 2021; Johnsen & Dyregrov, 2016; Kaplow et al, 2021; Matthews & Marwit, 2004; Moss & Raz, 2001; Ogata et al, 2011; Soydas et al, 2020); close domestic relations with both the victim and killer (Alisic, 2018; Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, & van de Putte, 2017; Clements & Burgess, 2002; Hardesty et al, 2008; Kapardis et al, 2017; Kaplan et al, 2001; Stanley et al, 2019; Steeves & Parker, 2007); continuing bonds with victim (Moss & Raz, 2001); the killer being the bereaved person’s parent (Kapardis et al, 2017); interfamilial homicide (Jackson et al, 2021); the victim and bereaved person belonging to a racial minority (Douglas et al, 2021; Kaplow et al, 2021; Kassing et al, 2021; McDevitt-Murphy et al, 2012; Williams et al, 2012); being the parent of a child who was killed at a young age (Matthews & Marwit, 2004; Murphy, Johnson, Chung, et al, 2003; Murphy, Johnson, Wu, et al, 2003; Nzewi et al, 2002); the homicide scene being the bereaved person’s home (Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, et al, 2017; Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, & van de Putte, 2017); children hearing or witnessing the killing (Clements & Burgess, 2002); the homicide resulting in multiple victims (Huggins & Hinkson, 2022; Kaplow et al, 2021; Lenferink, de Keijser, et al, 2017); the homicide being related to terror circumstances (Dyregrov et al, 2016; Johnsen & Dyregrov, 2016; Pfeffer et al, 2007); the killer’s criminal process resulting in acquittal (Thiel, 2016); and the killing being an unresolved homicide, known as a cold case (…”

“…The author resolved disagreements between the extracts of the two independent RAs. As Table 1 demonstrates, except for three papers (Currier et al, 2015; Kaplow et al, 2021; Soydas et al, 2020), most reviewed studies focused not on HB risk factors but rather on other topics related to HB. Thus, most reported HB risk factors were incidental to the topic of the reviewed studies.…”

“…,Soydas et al (2020),Stanley et al (2019) Female genderDyregrov et al (2015),Kaplow et al (2021),Kassing et al (2021),Soydas et al (2020Soydas et al ( , 2021) Prior mental problemAlves-Costa, Hamilton-Giachritsis, and Halligan (2021),Currier et al (2015),Soydas et al (2020), Williams et al (2012) Prior physical problem Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, and van de Putte (2017) Low socioeconomic status Douglas et al (2021) Immigrant residential status Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, and van de Putte (2017) Low level of religiosity or spirituality Boulware and Bui (2016), Burke et al (2011), Currier et al (2013), Johnson (2021), Johnson and Zitzmann (2020, 2021), Lee et al (2020), Mastrocinque et al (2020) Avoidance coping strategy, attachment anxiety Currier et al (2015)Belonging to ethnic, racial, or social minorityDouglas et al (2021), Kaplow et al (2021), Kassing et al (2021), Keesee et al (2008), McDevitt-Murphy et al (2012), Williams et al (2012) Prior polyvictimization (experiencing prior HB) Douglas et al (2021), Kassing et al (2021) Prior stressful life events and prior traumatization Douglas et al (2021), Soydas et al person's child who was killed at a young age Matthews and Marwit (2004), Murphy, Johnson, Chung, et al (2003), Murphy, Johnson, Wu, et al (2003), Nzewi et al (2002) Bereaved person's familial relations with victim Alisic (2018), Alves-Costa, Hamilton-Giachritsis, and Halligan (2021), Johnsen and Dyregrov (2016), Kaplow et al (2021), Matthews and Marwit (2004), Moss and Raz (2001), Ogata et al (2011), Soydas et al (2020) Bereaved person's close domestic relations with both victim and killer Alisic (2018), Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, and van de Putte (2017), Clements and Burgess (2002), Hardesty et al (2008), Kapardis et al (2017), Kaplan et al (2001), Stanley et al (2019), Steeves and Parker (2007) Living in proximity to killer, killer's family, or killing crime scene Hinkson et al (2020) Killer being bereaved person's parent Alisic (2018), Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, and van de Putte (2017), Clements and Burgess (2002), Kapardis et al (2017), Kaplan et al (2001), Stanley et al (2019) Intrafamilial homicide Jackson et al (2021), Steeves and Parker (2007) Killing involving multiple victims Dyregrov et al (2015), Huggins and Hinkson (2022) Kaplow et al (2021), Lenferink, de Keijser, et al (2017) Children hearing or witnessing the killing Clements and Burgess (2002) Killing scene being bereaved person's home Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, et al (2017), Alisic, Groot, Snetselaar, Stroeken, and van de Putte (2017) Homicide being related to terror circumstances Dyregrov et al (2016), Johnsen and Dyregrov (2016), Pfeffer et al (2007) Unresolved killing case (cold case) DeYoung and Buzzi (2003), Hinkson et al (2020), Huggins and Hinkson (2022), Huggins et al (2020), Keesee et al (2008), Powell et al (2010), Stretesky et al (2010), Wellman (2014) Victim and bereaved person belonging to racial, ethnic, or social minority Douglas et al (2021), Kaplow et al (2021), Kassing et al (2021), McDevitt-Murphy et al (2012), Williams et al (2012) Victim's engagement in crime Bailey, Hannays-King, et al (2013), Eisma et al (2019), Huggins et al (2020), Keesee et al (2008), Sharpe et al (2014) Victim or killer having mental health i...…”