The use of human waste for peri-urban agriculture in Northern Ghana

Abstract

In Ghana, studies on the use of organic materials to increase soil productivity have focused on crop-residue management, use of green and animal manures, and legume cover cropping. Few studies have assessed the use of human waste for agriculture, even though this is widely practiced by farmers in the northern part of the country. This study was carried out to investigate the stakeholders in the use of faecal sludge (FS) for crop production in Tamale and Bolgatanga municipalities in the guinea savanna agroecological zone of Ghana. The aim was to determine the driving factors, constraints and potentials for this practice. Field survey and focus group discussions were carried out among 90 farmers who use FS, and officials of the Municipal Sanitation Unit were interviewed. Sixty-four percent of farmers interviewed used FS as a cost-effective way to improve soil fertility and increase yields of maize and sorghum. Sludge is discharged by spreading it on the soil surface, or it is stored and dried in pits during the dry season and incorporated into the soil at the onset of the rainy season. The high temperatures of the savanna climate and this long period of drying allow sludge to be handled easily. Although this treatment is perceived to reduce the number of pathogens in dried sludge, 22% of farmers complained of itching feet and foot rot after working with FS, which is done without wearing protective foot covering. This constraint is coupled with the foul smell, transport problem and public mockery associated with the use of human waste for agriculture. In spite of these problems, there is competition for FS among farmers, due to benefits derived from its use. Further investigation is required to ascertain the causes of itching feet and foot rot, and there is a need for education on proper handling and appropriate hygiene practices when working with FS. Information regarding optimal FS application rates is also required.

Risk and benefit judgment of excreta as fertilizer in agriculture: An exploratory investigation in Rwanda and Uganda

“…First, individuals with high risk and low benefit judgment for excreta related practices would eschew them or emphasize strict standards. Second, individuals with a high benefit and low risk judgment would engage in excreta management practices regardless of safety precautions as highlighted in the case of Vietnam (Phuc et al 2006;Pham-Duc et al 2014;Mackie Jensen et al 2008) and Ghana (Cofie et al 2005).…”

“…However, the hygiene and safety aspects of practices involving the use of human faeces and urine in agriculture are not always appropriate (Cofie et al 2005;Knudsen et al 2008;Pham-Duc et al 2014). When closed loop systems are poorly introduced and managed, they pose severe threat to human and environmental health and may potentially exacerbate the situation in areas where water and hygiene are inadequate and basic sanitation facilities are dysfunctional such as in the countries where this study is conducted.…”

“…When closed loop systems are poorly introduced and managed, they pose severe threat to human and environmental health and may potentially exacerbate the situation in areas where water and hygiene are inadequate and basic sanitation facilities are dysfunctional such as in the countries where this study is conducted. Cofie et al (2005) report that in spite of the problems of foul smell and health issues such as itching and foot rot that smallholder farmers in Tamale, Ghana suffer from as they collect, handle and spread faecal sludge on agricultural land, a large number of them still carry on with the practice. Phuc et al (2006), Knudsen et al (2008), andMackie Jensen et al (2008) report that smallholder farmers in Vietnam and China perceive human excreta as a valuable resource in boosting agricultural productivity regardless of the potential health risks.…”

“…In communities where this practice is commonplace, it is characterized largely by unsafe collection of mostly faecal sludge from different types of latrine pits and septic tanks and application of this sludge, usually untreated, directly to agricultural land and fish ponds (Cofie et al 2005;Phuc et al 2006;Knudsen et al 2008;Mackie Jensen et al 2008;Pham-Duc et al 2011, 2014.…”

“…Two major challenges include: first, resistance to these closed loop systems within many communities and among many individuals partly due to perceived public health risks (Rozin et al 2015); and second and ironically, risky or unsafe excreta and wastewater related practices prevail in some communities where the productive use of human excreta and wastewater is common-place (Cofie et al 2005;Phuc et al 2006;Mackie Jensen et al 2008;Knudsen et al 2008;Karg and Drechsel 2011;Pham-Duc et al 2014).…”