The Vagueness of COLREG versus Collision Avoidance Techniques—A Discussion on the Current State and Future Challenges Concerning the Operation of Autonomous Ships

Abstract

With the development of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), considerable research is undertaken to secure their safety. One of the critical aspects of MASS is collision avoidance, and multiple collision avoidance algorithms have been developed. However, due to various reasons, collision avoidance of autonomous merchant vessels appears to be far from resolved. With this study, we aim to discuss the current state of Collision Avoidance Methods (CAMs) and the challenges lying ahead—from a joint academic and practical point of view. To this end, the key Rules from International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG) have been reviewed with a focus on their practical application for MASS. Moreover, the consideration of the COLREG Rules in contemporary collision avoidance algorithms has been reviewed. The ultimate objective is to identify aspects of COLREG requiring additional attention concerning MASS developments in terms of collision avoidance. Our conclusions indicate that although a lot of progress has been achieved recently, the feasibility of CAMs for MASS remains questionable. Reasons for so are the ambiguous character of the regulations, especially COLREG, as well as virtually all existing CAMs being at best only partly COLREG-compliant.

Challenges for the Education and Training of Seafarers in the Context of Autonomous Shipping: Bibliometric Analysis and Systematic Literature Review

“…Batalden, Leikanger and Wide [47] conclude that the COLREG convention and rules are outdated and were developed primarily based on the technology available at the time they were adopted, so a new convention may be needed to address collision avoidance when autonomous operations are introduced. According to Wrobel et al [48], addressing the challenges of autonomous collision avoidance at sea requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach that involves stakeholders from industry, academia and practice, emphasizes the need for a thorough integration of all COLREG rules into the collision algorithms, and explores the development of artificial intelligence capable of understanding the explicit aspects of navigation at sea while enabling effective human-machine interactions.…”

A study on the development and trend of COLREGs – A broader perspective

“…This means the vessel required not to impede another vessel might be a stand-on vessel when there is a risk of collision. According to the provisions of Rules 16 and 17, a give-way vessel shall take early and substantial action to keep well clear, while a stand-on vessel shall keep her course and speed (Stitt, 2002; Wróbel et al., 2022). Although this provision may be explained in terms of its intention to ensure that both vessels navigate with maximum vigilance, it can be challenging to implement in practice; seafarers even refer to it as the ‘Confusion Clause’.…”

Determining the Proper Times and Sufficient Actions for the Collision Avoidance of Navigator-Centered Ships in the Open Sea Using Artificial Neural Networks

“…However, COLREG's Rule 6 "Safety speed" and Rule 8 "Action to avoid collision" do not clearly state when and how to avoid a maritime collision [17]. Therefore, the proper time and sufficient actions required to avoid a collision is usually determined by a seafarer with a lot of experience on duty and understanding with regard to maneuvering a ship [18]. For inexperienced seafarers, a human error can occur in the decision-making process regarding the proper time and sufficient actions required for CA.…”