The venom optimization hypothesis revisited

Morgenstern, David; King, Glenn F.

doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.11.022

Cited by 146 publications

(140 citation statements)

References 73 publications

Supporting

Mentioning

136

Contrasting

Unclassified

Order By: Relevance

“…4 and 5). This observation is compatible with compartmentalization of toxin production in venom glands, as has been previously reported for snakes, spiders, scorpions, and cone snails, where it has been proposed to enable biochemical modulation of secreted venom components (10,34). Recently it was shown that fish-and mollusk-eating members of the venomous marine snail genus Conus use this compartmentalization to produce two pharmacologically and biochemically distinct secretions for defensive and predatory envenomations (35).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 85%

“…However, venom is also an energetically expensive commodity that tends to be used sparingly and only when physical means of safely overpowering prey are insufficient (10). The degree of coevolution, and hence in many cases toxin-gene diversity, is therefore substantially dependent on the degree to which an animal relies on biochemical (i.e., venom) versus physical means for overpowering prey.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Production and packaging of a biological arsenal: Evolution of centipede venoms under morphological constraint

Undheim

Hamilton

Kurniawan³

et al. 2015

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Venom represents one of the most extreme manifestations of a chemical arms race. Venoms are complex biochemical arsenals, often containing hundreds to thousands of unique protein toxins. Despite their utility for prey capture, venoms are energetically expensive commodities, and consequently it is hypothesized that venom complexity is inversely related to the capacity of a venomous animal to physically subdue prey. Centipedes, one of the oldest yet least-studied venomous lineages, appear to defy this rule. Although scutigeromorph centipedes produce less complex venom than those secreted by scolopendrid centipedes, they appear to rely heavily on venom for prey capture. We show that the venom glands are large and well developed in both scutigerid and scolopendrid species, but that scutigerid forcipules lack the adaptations that allow scolopendrids to inflict physical damage on prey and predators. Moreover, we reveal that scolopendrid venom glands have evolved to accommodate a much larger number of secretory cells and, by using imaging mass spectrometry, we demonstrate that toxin production is heterogeneous across these secretory units. We propose that the differences in venom complexity between centipede orders are largely a result of morphological restrictions of the venom gland, and consequently there is a strong correlation between the morphological and biochemical complexity of this unique venom system. The current data add to the growing body of evidence that toxins are not expressed in a spatially homogenous manner within venom glands, and they suggest that the link between ecology and toxin evolution is more complex than previously thought. venom evolution | venom-gland morphology | centipede | mass spectrometry imaging | venom optimization hypothesis

show abstract

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 85%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Production and packaging of a biological arsenal: Evolution of centipede venoms under morphological constraint

Undheim

Hamilton

Kurniawan³

et al. 2015

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Producing and replenishing venom comes with a metabolic cost for snakes (Morgenstern and King, 2013). This metabolic cost can, however, be lowered through toxin synergism, which may allow a venom to reach high potency with less toxins.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Toxin synergism in snake venoms

Laustsen

2016

Toxin Reviews

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Synergism between venom toxins exists for a range of snake species. Synergism can be derived from both intermolecular interactions and supramolecular interactions between venom components and can be the result of toxins targeting the same protein, biochemical pathway, or physiological process. Few simple systematic tools and methods for determining the presence of synergism exist, but include co-administration of venom components and assessment of Accumulated Toxicity Scores. A better understanding of how to investigate synergism in snake venoms may help unravel strategies for developing novel therapies against snakebite envenoming by elucidating mechanisms for toxicity and interactions between venom components.

show abstract

“…Because venom is both a valuable resource and a limited commodity, selection should favor the behavioral use of venom in ways that maximize effectiveness and minimize waste (Hayes 2008;Hayes et al 2002;Hostettler and Nentwig 2006;Morgenstern and King 2013). Cost-benefit analyses are essential for understanding the adaptive value of behavior because natural selection favors strategies that have a propitious cost-benefit ratio (Cuthill and Houston 1997).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Strategic Use of Venom by Spiders

Cooper¹,

Nelsen²,

Hayes³

2015

Evolution of Venomous Animals and Their Toxins

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Understanding the behaviors by which animals deploy their venoms has been largely neglected compared to other aspects of the evolution and biology of venomous organisms and their venoms. Yet, behavior has long been recognized as a pacemaker for the evolution of morphological, ecological, life history, and other traits, in large part because behavioral responses can expose organisms to or protect them from novel selection pressures. The importance of behavior is especially evident in that venom most often functions through a behavioral act that generates a wound in a target animal through which the toxic secretion must be introduced. As a limited and costly commodity, venom should be deployed strategically and judiciously by those animals that possess it. The chapter summarizes the major aspects of adaptive venom use in animals, and highlights the best documented examples of strategic venom deployment among spiders. These animals, like other venomous taxa, exhibit four major behavioral strategies. First, they are often highly selective when using their venom, discharging it only under certain conditions. Second, they can modulate the quantity of venom they expend in both predatory and defensive contexts, delivering multiple bites or variable quantities within individual doses. Third, at least one study suggests that spiders possess venom gland heterogeneity and therefore deliver varying venom composition with successive venom expulsions. Finally, some evidence suggests that spiders can strategically target the delivery of their weapon at a particularly vulnerable region of their target. Collectively, the evidence suggests a common theme among spiders and other venomous animals for economization and optimization of venom deployment.

show abstract

The venom optimization hypothesis revisited

Cited by 146 publications

References 73 publications

Production and packaging of a biological arsenal: Evolution of centipede venoms under morphological constraint

Production and packaging of a biological arsenal: Evolution of centipede venoms under morphological constraint

Toxin synergism in snake venoms

The Strategic Use of Venom by Spiders

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About