Hybrid density functional
theory was employed to study the reaction
mechanisms of two homogeneous copper water oxidation catalysts (WOCs),
[(L22–)CuII(OH2)2] (H2L2 = 6,6′-dihydroxy-2,2′-bipyridine)
[turnover frequency (TOF) = 0.4 s–1 at an overpotential
= 640 mV and pH 12.4] and [(L1)CuII(OH–)2] (L1 = 2,2′-bipyridine) (TOF = 100 s–1 at an overpotential = 850 mV and pH 12.5). Interesting mechanistic
insights were obtained by systematically exploring different oxidation
and protonation states along reaction pathways. Two well-established
protocols to compute the thermodynamics of proton and electron release
processes were employed, and similar results were obtained. For the
[(L22–)CuII(OH2)2] WOC, two distinct types of water oxidation mechanisms were found
with similar rate-limiting barriers, cosubstrate and hydroxyl coupling, termed as such because of the characteristics
of the O–O bond formation transition states. For the cosubstrate
mechanism, after the starting species is oxidized twice, an O–O
bond is formed between the copper-bound terminal oxyl radical ligand
and its adjacent oxyanion substituent on the bipyridine radicaloid,
showing an interesting mechanistic role for the electron-donating
proton-responsive hydroxyl substituent. After the third oxidation
of the complex, the organic peroxyl moiety is displaced into an inorganic
superoxide by a free anionic hydroxide, which is the rate-limiting
step in the cosubstrate mechanism. For the hydroxyl coupling mechanism,
after two oxidations of the starting species, O–O bond formation
occurs through coupling within the copper-bound (OHlig···OHfree)•– moiety, with hydrogen-bonding
stabilization from the 6,6′-oxyanions and the ligating and
free water molecules. For the parent [(L1)CuII(OH–)2] WOC, O–O bond formation was suggested to occur
through coupling between the copper-bound oxyl radical and hydroxide
ligands. The results could be useful for further improvement of Cu
WOCs.