They Call Us Problem Child: Delinquency, Medicalization, and Social Class in Primary Education

The Social Construction of Child Social Control via Criminalization and Medicalization: Why Race Matters

“…Research demonstrates this separation is detrimental to children's future educational success because it disrupts the learning process (Kim et al. ; Morris and Perry ) and tells others that children cannot follow instructions (Ferguson ; Lavin ). Unlike other disciplinary actions, including office referrals, calls home, or after‐school detentions, suspensions and expulsions remain on children's official records (Kim et al.…”

“…Teachers and administrators are made aware of past infractions and may be more suspicious of punished children, increasing student–teacher conflict and the possibility of future discipline (Hirschfield ; Kupchik ). Moreover, their peers note these rule violations and exclude punished children from pro‐social groups and activities (Lavin ; Kupchik ).…”

“…This stigmatization by adults and peers undermines pro‐social bonds and fosters deviant self‐identities (Bowditch ; Lavin ; Paternoster and Iovanni ), which can increase their risk of involvement in other activities that could lead to arrest and/or incarceration later in life (Hirschi ; Kupchik and Mowen ). Recently, scholars contend that criminalized discipline functions as part of a “school‐to‐prison pipeline” in which similarities between suspension/expulsion and legal sanctions help to siphon certain children into the criminal justice system (Heitzeg ; Kim et al.…”

“…), it also stigmatizes children and potentially limits their long‐term educational opportunities (Hibel et al. ; Lavin ). If peers are aware of behavior problems, they may exclude medicalized children from groups and activities that foster pro‐social development and impede academic progress (Lavin ).…”

“…; Lavin ). If peers are aware of behavior problems, they may exclude medicalized children from groups and activities that foster pro‐social development and impede academic progress (Lavin ). Similar to punitive labels, the stigmatization caused by medicalization may lead children to internalize deviant self‐identity, risking future misbehavior (Lavin ; Rafalovich 2005).…”