Three-Dimensional Modeling and Extended Reality Simulations of the Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum, and Brainstem

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Understanding the anatomy of the human cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem and their 3-dimensional (3D) relationships is critical for neurosurgery. Although 3D photogrammetric models of cadaver brains and 2-dimensional images of postmortem brain slices are available, neurosurgeons lack free access to 3D models of cross-sectional anatomy of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem that can be simulated in both augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR). OBJECTIVE:To create 3D models and AR/VR simulations from 2-dimensional images of cross-sectionally dissected cadaveric specimens of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. METHODS:The Klingler method was used to prepare 3 cadaveric specimens for dissection in the axial, sagittal, and coronal planes. A series of 3D models and AR/VR simulations were then created using 360°photogrammetry.RESULTS: High-resolution 3D models of cross-sectional anatomy of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem were obtained and used in creating AR/VR simulations. Eleven axial, 9 sagittal, and 7 coronal 3D models were created. The sections were planned to show important deep anatomic structures. These models can be freely rotated, projected onto any surface, viewed from all angles, and examined at various magnifications.CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this detailed study is the first to combine up-to-date technologies (photogrammetry, AR, and VR) for high-resolution 3D visualization of the cross-sectional anatomy of the entire human cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The resulting 3D images are freely available for use by medical professionals and students for better comprehension of the 3D relationship of the deep and superficial brain anatomy.

Bibliometric Analysis: Augmented Reality in Science Education Research Trends

“…The VOS Viewer offers bibliometric analysis mapping with three different visualizations, including the overlay visualization mentioned (see Figure 12). Based on Figure 12, Augmented Reality research is more related to clinical articles (Jeffers et al, 2022;Lau et al, 2023), extended reality (Chang et al, 2023;Gurses et al, 2023;Spadoni et al, 2022), likert scale (Soyka & Simons, 2022;Zatarain-Cabada et al, 2023), and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (De Benedictis et al, 2023;Shahbaz et al, 2023). Additionally, Augmented Reality research is applied from early childhood education to higher education levels (Senduk et al, 2016).…”

Quantitative assessment and objective improvement of the accuracy of neurosurgical planning through digital patient-specific 3D models

“…We envision that the costs will diminish considerably in near future so that any neurosurgeon can use these patient-specific 3D digital models in everyday clinical practice. Therefore, there is a huge potential for their use in training, surgical planning, and educational assessment ( 43 – 45 ). This potential should be further explored by neurosurgeons, educators, trainees and professional organizations.…”

Photogrammetry Applied to Neurosurgery: A Literature Review

“…All of the papers used cadavers for the creation of the models, except one, which explored the generation of intraoperative 3D models using Digital Single-Lens Reflex (DSLR) cameras [11]. For image acquisition, in the studies, the authors used DSLR cameras [3,8,9,[11][12][13][14][15][16]18,19,21,22] smartphone cameras [1,2,[4][5][6][7][8]20], and endoscope cameras [10,17]. The consensus among the studies is that anatomical models of high quality and accuracy can be created using ordinary cameras and smartphones.…”

“…In the neuroanatomy laboratory, photogrammetry is used to generate 3D models based on cadaveric dissections [2,18,19], which allows for their repeated use and their prolonged preservation in the virtual space and their application in residents training to acquire a better understanding of complex anatomy. The purpose of the models ranges from a more general representation of anatomy [5,7,8,19,21] to the creation of collections of specific representations of surgical approaches [13][14][15][16]20,22].…”