Three-Dimensional Printing of Polycaprolactone/Nano-Hydroxyapatite Composite Scaffolds with a Pore Size of 300/500 µm is Histocompatible and Promotes Osteogenesis Using Rabbit Cortical Bone Marrow Stem Cells

Abstract

Background Many patients have bone defects that exceed the healing size. This study aimed to construct polycaprolactone/nano-hydroxyapatite (PCL/nHA) composite scaffolds with different pore sizes and investigate the osteogenesis and histocompatibility of cortical bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs-C) seeded on it after inoculation. Material/Methods After mixing PCL and nHA proportionally, three-dimensional (3D) printing was used to print scaffolds. Porosity, compressive strength, and elastic modulus of PCL/nHA scaffolds were tested. The proliferation of BMSCs-C cells was examined and osteogenesis, chondrogenesis, and adipogenesis were evaluated. BMSCs-C cells were inoculated into 3D printing scaffolds, and histocompatibility between BMSCs-C cells and scaffolds was observed by the cell count kit (CCK-8) assay and LIVE/DEAD staining. After inoculating BMSCs-C cells into scaffolds, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and calcium content were measured. Results There was no obvious difference in characteristics between the 3 PCL/nHA composite scaffolds. The porosity, compressive strength, and elastic modulus of the 300/500-μm scaffold were between those of the 300-μm and 500-μm scaffolds. With increasing pore size, the mechanical properties of the scaffold decrease. BMSCs-C cells demonstrated faster growth and better osteogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic differentiation; therefore, BMSCs-C cells were selected as seed cells. PCL/nHA composite scaffolds with different pore sizes had no obvious toxicity and demonstrated good biocompatibility. All scaffolds showed higher ALP activity and calcium content. Conclusions The 300/500 μm mixed pore size scaffold took into account the mechanical properties of the 300 μm scaffold and the cell culture area of the 500 μm scaffold, therefore, 300/500 μm scaffold is a better model for the construction of tissue engineering scaffolds.

Investigating mechanical properties of 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

“…The compressive strength of the scaffolds declined as the pore size increased, with a decrease in compressive strength observed when the pore size reached approximately 600 μm [12]. Previous research has indicated that a wide aperture size, for instance, 500 μm [13] and 700 μm [14], is favorable for the growth of bone tissue. Therefore, the apertures utilized in this investigation were calibrated to 400 μm, 600 μm, and 800 μm, ensuring that the scaffold apertures fell within the optimal range for bone growth while being adequately spacious.…”

3D and 4D printing of biomedical materials: current trends, challenges, and future outlook

“…Some of the recent 3D and 4D printed BMMs tested for implants and prosthetics, reported in the literature are showed in Figure 5. The ones illustrated represent a variety of BMMs including Ti-6Al-4Vbased porous channel dental implants 3D printed via DMLS (Figure 5A) [133], cross-linked PLA-based thermomagnetic responsive vascular stent 4D printed via DIW (Figure 5B) [134], PCL/acrylates-based thermo responsive vascular conduit 4D printed via DIW (Figure 5C) [135], FDM-3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)-based human skull and PEEK based porous implant applied on the skull (Figure 5D) [136], and FDM-3D printed PLA/antibiotic based interference fixation screws (Figure 5E) [137].…”

“…Itraconazole/HPC-UL, SSL, SL, and L (different HPC grades/compositions)-drug products [154] FDM PLA/PVA-based mouthguard [62] Surgical and diagnostic tools SLS Virgin and recycled Dura-Form EX plastic powder-surgical tool kit [67] PLA-based Army-Navy surgical retractor [68] PLA-based microchannel system [75] Graphene/PLA-ring-and disc-shaped electrodes [76] Graphene-based enzymatic biosensor [77] FDM Graphene/PLA-electrode [79] DIW-AJP Ag-microelectrode arrays [82] SLA PEGDA-biomicrofluidic devices [83] SLS Cu nanoparticles/polyethylene-naphthalate (PEN)-flexible touch panel [86] FDM PLA/PAM/HPMC-hydrogel wound dressings [69] FDM Thermoplastic-frame for magnetic focus lateral flow sensor detecting cervical cancer biomarkers [78] Implants and prosthetics FDM PEKK-based bone analogs [117] PMMA/PEEK-cranial implant [118] PMMA-medical implants [120] FDM PLA-interference screw [125] DMLS Ti-6Al-4V-porous channel dental implant [133] FDM ABS-human skull; PEEK-porous implant [136] FDM PLA/GS-interference fixation screws [137] Table 2 DLP and DIW NIR light and temperature Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, poly(propylene glycol) bis(2aminopropyl) ether, and decylamine-cardiac patch [190] DIW Fe 3+ ions, sodium lactate/ UV Acrylamide-acrylic acid/cellulose nanocrystal-bilayer hydrogel stent [191] FDM Magnetism Fe 2 O 3 /shape memory PLA-occluders [192] undesirable for 4D printing. The materials used for the 4D printing of BMMs should also be biocompatible and biodegradable with acceptable mechanical properties.…”

Impact of 17β-Estradiol on the Shape, Survival, Osteogenic Transformation, and mRNA Expression of Gingiva-Derived Stem Cell Spheroids

“…Stem cells obtained from gingiva were cultivated in an osteogenic medium after being plated onto 600 µm diameter concave microwells (StemFIT 3D; MicroFIT, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea) composed of silicon elastomer at a density of 1 × 10 6 cells/ well [32]. The final concentrations of 17β-estradiol (3301-1GM, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) were 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 nM.…”

“…Day 3 of the cultivation of cell spheroids in osteogenic media was used to assess the qualitative cell viability using the live/dead kit assay (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA) [32]. This assay distinguishes between live and dead cells based on the integrity of the cell membrane and overall cellular health.…”