Timurid Commercial Relations with China

Abstract

Political and commercial relations between the Timurid Empire (1370–1507) and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in China are mostly framed by the so-called “tribute system.” It is indeed difficult to investigate and analyze these relations without referring to this theoretical framework. Closely related to this theoretical problem is the difficulty to distinguish between commercial and political interactions because, according to the regulations of the Ming court, private commercial entrepreneurship was closely restricted and merchants were thus forced to guise themselves as “official” envoys or travel in the retinue of real ones. However, during the first decades of the two empires, political relations probably prevailed, especially when the planned military campaign of Timur against China is considered. Though the first embassies of both sides offered various wares as “tribute” or “presents”—a requisite of any mission—their basic intention was obviously “political” reconnaissance of the other side. This changed after the death of the extremely external-orientated emperor Yongle 永乐 in 1424. After that, the character of the caravans, which traveled almost exclusively from west to east from this year onward, showed a prevalent commercial intention, as far as can be judged from the Chinese texts, the sole source for the topic. However, the land-based “silk road” was not the only way from the Timurid Empire to China, but the maritime route was also of major importance. The chief terminus in the Persian Gulf, the Princedom of Hormuz, though it never submitted to the Timurid Empire, functioned as an important harbor and emporium. On the maritime route, commercial interests certainly prevailed.