Tokenism and Women in the Workplace: The Limits of Gender-Neutral Theory

Abstract

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Perceptions of Gender Bias in the Promotional Process of a Detention Staff

“…Therefore, even though there were differences across staff gender in five specific findings, we believe that overall, the work-role prisonization model is a more applicable theoretical explanation based on the current results. This is based on the results that female staff tended to have more positive views of the promotional process compared to males, which is inconsistent with some prior research that supports the importationdifferential experiences model (Carlson et al 2003;Jurik and Halemba 1984;Zimmer 1988). However, the results could also lend support to more recent research (see Griffin 2006) that a form of Breverse discrimination^is occurring that makes males have more negative views of promotional processes compared to their female counterparts.…”

“…The concept of Btokenism^also parallels the importation-differential experiences model in a correctional setting. Specifically, Btokenism^also posits that females are seen as a Bminorityâ nd therefore face more obstacles in order to obtain equal treatment in the workplace (Kanter 1977b;Zimmer 1986Zimmer , 1988. Issues of discrimination and harassment of female staff by their male counterparts have also been found to reinforce past experiences and translate to negative perceptions and attitudes of their occupation (Carlson et al 2003;Owen 1988;Zimmer 1986).…”

Doing and Undoing Gender in Sport Governance

“…A considerable amount of research has explored this connection between behavior and social group composition (see for example, Knoppers et al 1993;Ott 1989;Simpson 1997;Stangl and Kane 1991;Yoder 1991;Zimmer 1988). For example, Simpson (1997) explored the barriers token women experience in their career as they attained high level positions as managers.…”

Educational choice and persistence in male- and female-dominated fields

“…One reason may be that Kanter's theory of relative numbers is gender neutral and do not take into account cultural and social influences of gender in the wider social sphere. It has been argued that the theory does not reflect the impact that groups' relative status have on social processes (Chatman & O'Reilly, 2004;Teigen, 1999;Zimmer, 1988). Mills, Martino, and Lingard (2004) note that although men in a 'feminized' occupation like teaching do to some extent experience problems like suspicions of being gay or having paedophilic intentions (also see Carrington & Skelton, 2003), they are also much more likely than female teachers to be promoted.…”