Total Dissolved Solids and Their Removal Techniques

Abstract

Total dissolved solids (TDS) due to both geogenic and anthropogenic contaminations, is one of the preliminary as well as essential parameters among others to describe water quality. It includes organic and inorganic components, heavy metals, salts, other dissolved substances, and others due to indiscriminate disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents, urban and/or agricultural runoff which exists in the form of micro or nano level in nature. Higher TDS levels in water severely impact health and the environment. For instance, it causes gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, genotoxic, respiratory, skin, and hepatic effects in humans. High TDS level (> 500 ppm) results in excessive scaling in household appliances (e.g., pipes, heaters, and boilers) thereby reducing their efficiency. Therefore, the removal of TDS from various water matrices is taking paramount importance to minimize its impact on health and the environment. Various TDS removal technologies based on the membrane, ion, and temperature gradient are employed to treat water. In this review paper, several TDS removal technologies for instance reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, distillation, ultrafiltration, forward osmosis, precipitation, desalination, ion exchange, electrochemical techniques, electrodialysis, electrolysis, electrocoagulation, and adsorption are discussed in detail.

Study of the removal of nitrate and dissolved iron pollutants from industrial wastewater to become raw water using nanofiltration

“…In comparison, nitrate has a high removal efficiency to dissolved iron which may be caused by the difference in particle size between them. Dissolved iron tends to exhibit a positive correlation which makes it more challenging to exclude the Dannon mechanism in nanofiltration membrane technology [14]. Because both nitrate and dissolved iron are insoluble in water, they can be eliminated through sieving and the Donnan exclusion mechanism [14].…”

“…Dissolved iron tends to exhibit a positive correlation which makes it more challenging to exclude the Dannon mechanism in nanofiltration membrane technology [14]. Because both nitrate and dissolved iron are insoluble in water, they can be eliminated through sieving and the Donnan exclusion mechanism [14]. The Donnan exclusion mechanism is based on the selective permeability of charged ions, whereas the sieving mechanism is based on size, where a membrane with a certain pore size allows smaller molecules to pass through and blocks larger molecules.…”

“…The ion concentrations on either side of the membrane differ, which is the cause of this. Ions can be separated more easily by membranes with a Donnan exclusion mechanism based on size and charge [14].…”

Study of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Concentrations Factor of SWCC Al-Khobar Plant Seawater Intakes

“…The performance of the desalination plant is significantly impacted by the TDS concentration in the feedwater [5]. Higher TDS levels pose challenges in removing salts and other substances, requiring more energy to pressurize the water flux through the membranes [6]. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehensively understand, continuously monitor, and effectively control the TDS levels of the feed water source to ensure the efficiency and effectiveness of water production.…”

Application of Calcium Alginate Products for Seawater Desalination Process

“…Seawater has a TDS level above 3000 ppm correlated with high salinity and unsuitable for direct consumption. According to WHO standards, drinking water is considered safe if it has a TDS level of less than 100 ppm [4]. Researchers have identified heavy metal content and total solids to investigate natural metal sources in marine waters as well as analytical methods to identify heavy metal isotope ratios [5]- [8].…”