Toward the Full Inclusion of Muslim Women in the Ummah

Abstract

This paper outlines some of the challenges that prevent Muslim women from becoming full members of the Ummah. Although we often hear of the rights of"women in ]slam'' in the abstract,1 we must know the specifics to improve the lives of Muslim women in reality. This paper tries to provide those specifics. It does not analyze the items, since the issues covered are many and disparate; rather, it simply highlights some concerns so that qual­ified practitioners can discuss and debate remedies. The bulk of this paper's main concern is to address some of the obstacles that hamper efforts to alleviate these challenges. The first section presents the list of challenges, while the second sec­tion discusses these obstacles. The paper concludes with a series of proposals intended to assuage the listed problems. Therefore, its focus is on more broad-based remedies rather than a specific remedy for a specific problem. The paper's underlying assump­tions are that women should be fully included in the Ummah and that this is not the case now. To make this clear, a definition of "full inclusion in the Ummah" is given before the paper proceeds to listing the challenges ...

Women entrepreneurship in the Middle East and North Africa

“…This suggests a unique and homogeneous cultural attitude toward women which some scholars have criticized as a stereotypical view (Karam and Afiouni, 2014). Moreover, Islam itself has a variety of gender-related traditions that depend on the various Islamic confessional communities (Bullock, 2002). The region offers a great opportunity to include other faiths, notably Judaism and Christianity, and to compare how their historic experiences, cultures and traditions interact with female entrepreneurial activities.…”

Emirati women’s professional legitimacy

“…His early declarations represent a political, emotional and cultural justification of women’s professional freedom and thereby function as a macro-level factor that serves to validate female participation in the workplace. They constitute what Karam and Afiouni (2014, p. 526) describe as one of the “legitimate cultural mechanisms […] through which change is possible.” We can infer from his pronouncements the concepts expressed by scholars of Islam and feminism, such as Bullock (2002), Metcalfe (2007), Omair (2008) and Sidani (2005), who demonstrate that Islamic tenets do not prohibit women from holding positions of power, even if many patriarchal interpretations of them do. This pro-female attitude expressed by the country’s founding father provides a degree of cultural validity for UAE women to enter, and thrive in, public spheres, exemplifying the power of genuine, ingrained political support for enhanced gender equity.…”

“…Some scholars have begun to explore the distinction between gendered roles dictated by Islam versus those dictated by local custom, termed Urf in Arabic (Rizzo et al , 2007). Bullock (2002) illustrates that many practices ascribed to Islamic principles are, in fact, localized pre-Islamic traditions. Rozario and Hilsdon (2006) also stress that country-specific cultural mores do not necessarily correspond to Islamic values and that this distinction needs to be clear, as in many cases patriarchal biases may masquerade as religious prescriptions.…”

Gendered Islamophobia: The nature of Hindu and Buddhist nationalism in India and Sri Lanka

“…Several authors have described how Orientalism has shaped perceptions of veiled Muslim women. On the one hand, veiled Muslim women represent oppression and subjugation, while on the other, they are highly sexualized, as seen through Orientalist depictions (Alloula, 1986; Bullock, 2000, 2002; Hoodfar, 2003; Kahf, 1999; Mabro, 1991; MacMaster & Lewis, 1998; Said, 1979; Yegenoglu, 1998; Zine, 2002). These Orientalist views were predominantly understood as informing Western audiences, but they are also used to broadly inform non‐Muslim audiences beyond the West who still view the Muslim population as ‘foreign’.…”

“…In a femonationalist context, a woman’s choice to observe hijab may represent victimhood to the patriarchy. On the other hand, her choice not to observe hijab may lead to criticism within her own community (Bullock, 2002; MacMaster & Lewis, 1998; Read & Bartkowski, 2000). Whatever her choice, she faces criticism and in many instances violence as well.…”