Towards carbon neutrality: Improving resource efficiency of the rare earth elements in China

Ge, Zewen; Geng, Yong; Dong, Fanli; Liang, Jingjing; Chen, Zhong

doi:10.3389/fenvs.2022.962724

Cited by 7 publications

(4 citation statements)

References 28 publications

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“…China's dominance increased, eventually reaching 95% of global production as it acquired stakes in REE firms worldwide, resulting in a "Rare Earth Crisis" in 2010. A dispute between China and Japan led to China imposing restrictions on REE exports, causing prices to surge to 500% in some cases [49]. This incident prompted several nations to reconsider their REE possibilities to reduce their reliance on China.…”

Section: Literature Review and Rare Earth Data Sourcesmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Predicting the Production and Depletion of Rare Earth Elements and Their Influence on Energy Sector Sustainability through the Utilization of Multilevel Linear Prediction Mixed-Effects Models with R Software

El Azhari,

Cherif,

El Halimi

et al. 2024

Sustainability

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For many years, rare earth elements (REEs) have been part of a wide range of applications (from cell phones and batteries to electric vehicles and wind turbines) needed for daily life all over the world. Moreover, they are often declared to be part of “green technology”. Therefore, the data obtained from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) on the reserve and production of rare earth elements underwent treatment using the multivariate imputation by chained equations (MICE) algorithm to recover missing data. Initially, a simple linear regression model was chosen, which only considered fixed effects (β) and ignored random effects (Ui). However, recognizing the importance of accounting for random effects, the study subsequently employed the multilevel Linear Mixed-Effects (LME) model. This model allows for the simultaneous estimation of both fixed effects and random effects, followed by the estimation of variance parameters (γ, ρ, and σ2). The study demonstrated that the adjusted values closely align with the actual values, as indicated by the p-values being less than 0.05. Moreover, this model effectively captures the sample’s error, fixed, and random components. Also, in this range, the findings indicated two standard deviation measurements for fixed and random effects, along with a variance measurement, which exhibits significant predictive capabilities. Furthermore, within this timeframe, the study provided predictions for world reserves of rare earth elements in various countries until 2053, as well as world production forecasts through 2051. Notably, China is expected to maintain its dominant position in both reserve and production, with an estimated production volume of 101,985.246 tons, followed by the USA with a production volume of 15,850.642 tons. This study also highlights the periodic nature of production, with a specific scale, as well as periodicity in reserve. These insights can be utilized to define and quantify sustainability and to mitigate environmental hazards associated with the use of rare earth materials in the energy industry. Additionally, they can aid in making informed decisions regarding at-risk rare earth reserves, considering potential future trends in electric vehicle (EV) production up to the year 2050.

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Section: Literature Review and Rare Earth Data Sourcesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Based on the literature review, it is identified that there is only one study that analyzes the long-term production of rare earths worldwide using quantitative methods [17]. In addition, there are three studies that present the long-term production trajectory of China's rare earths [41,49,77].…”

Section: Limitations and Future Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

Predicting the Production and Depletion of Rare Earth Elements and Their Influence on Energy Sector Sustainability through the Utilization of Multilevel Linear Prediction Mixed-Effects Models with R Software

El Azhari,

Cherif,

El Halimi

et al. 2024

Sustainability

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“…Given that HREE form more stable complexes with many soil constituents than LREE do [173][174][175], SOM often appears to be enriched in HREE relative to LREE [82,175,176]. Ma et al [177] observed a strong positive Ce-anomaly in REE patterns of organic matter, probably because complexation capacities and formation constants of humic acids are higher with Ce than with the other LREE [178]. In podzols, the percentage of total REE in general, and especially of HREE bound to organic matter, increases with soil depth [82,176] due either to the preferential complexation or the migration of HREE-complexes [82,176].…”

Section: Mobility and Speciation In Soilmentioning

confidence: 99%

Rare Earth Elements (REE): Origins, Dispersion, and Environmental Implications—A Comprehensive Review

Sager,

Wiche

2024

Environments

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The rare earth elements (REE) comprise a group of 16 chemically very similar elements that occur widespread in rocks, soils, and water bodies, share similar ionic radii to the essential element Ca2+, and consequently also occur in biota. Given that REE form mainly trivalent cations, they also share similarities to Al3+. Compared to their chemical cognate Ca, they have a higher reactivity. Thus, their accumulation in soils may constitute a severe environmental threat. Over the last decades, the increasing use of REE in modern technology and fertilizers raised concerns about the pollution of soils and water bodies, which led to a rapidly increasing number of publications dealing with REE toxicity to plants, animals and humans, the fate of REE in soil–plant systems, REE cycling in ecosystems and impacts of REE pollution on food security. This review aims to give an overview of the current knowledge on the occurrence of REE in the total environment, including relevant environmental processes governing their mobility, chemical speciation and transfer from abiotic compartments into biota. Beginning with an overview of analytical approaches, we summarize the current knowledge on the ecology of REE in the lithosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, including impacts of soil pollution on food security and public health.

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“…REE materials are now mostly supplied by China [3], and with demand growing rapidly, there are concerns about supply constraints in the midst of geopolitical tensions [5][6][7][8]. In 2020, the EU started a raw materials alliance focused primarily on REEs and permanent magnet production, as well as a detailed action plan to address possible risks associated with vital raw resources [9]. Notably, for these four elements (Pr, Nd, Dy, and Tb), the intensification in their usage is expected in both low-carbon technologies and other applications.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

On membrane-based approaches for rare earths separation and extraction – Recent developments

Kujawa,

Al Gharabli,

Szymczyk

et al. 2023

Coordination Chemistry Reviews

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Towards carbon neutrality: Improving resource efficiency of the rare earth elements in China

Cited by 7 publications

References 28 publications

Predicting the Production and Depletion of Rare Earth Elements and Their Influence on Energy Sector Sustainability through the Utilization of Multilevel Linear Prediction Mixed-Effects Models with R Software

Predicting the Production and Depletion of Rare Earth Elements and Their Influence on Energy Sector Sustainability through the Utilization of Multilevel Linear Prediction Mixed-Effects Models with R Software

Rare Earth Elements (REE): Origins, Dispersion, and Environmental Implications—A Comprehensive Review

On membrane-based approaches for rare earths separation and extraction – Recent developments

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