“…Whether that innovation system is best demarcated by a technological definition is ambiguous, as vaccine development is based on a number of different platform technologies ( Ramezanpour et al., 2015 ). Also in terms of geographical demarcation, clear system boundaries are difficult to draw as some parts of the vaccine innovation system have global reach, such as knowledge development, whereas valuation-focused activities, such as legitimacy creation and market creation, are generally deeply embedded in national-level activities ( Yap et al., 2022 ). As such, our work builds on and adds to literature on global innovation systems ( Binz and Truffer, 2017 ) in which these valuation-focused activities on multiple geographical levels are connected ( de Haan et al., 2021 ).…”