“…The reason is that we cannot make assumptions about code that does and does not execute. Other works [22,86,93] have faced a similar problem; however, they addressed it for their specific use case: [86] only compared the number of file operations, while [22,93] examined different forms of a call graph. Therefore, we measured the differences between the events in the execution traces by dividing them into 11 high-level categories related to the workings of Android: 1) Accessibility Service (a11y), 2) Broadcast Receivers (BR), 3) Command Line Interface commands (CLI), 4) Content Providers (CP), 5) Dangerous APIs (DAPI), 6) Dynamic Code Loading (DCL), 7) File System (FS), 8) Inter-Process Communication (IPC), 9) Network (NET), 10) Requests for Permissions (PERM), and 11) Systems Services (SS).…”