Toxicity mechanisms and remediation strategies for chromium exposure in the environment

Abstract

Chromium (Cr) is the seventh most abundant chemical element in the Earth’s crust, and Cr(III) and Cr(VI) are common stable valence states of Cr. Several Cr-containing substances, such as FeOCr2O3 and stainless-steel products, exist in nature and in life. However, Cr(VI) is toxic to soil, microorganisms, and plants and poses a serious threat to human health through direct and indirect exposure. By collecting published journal literature, we found that Cr(VI) can cause acute and chronic toxicity in organisms and has carcinogenic effects, and the mechanisms causing these toxicity include endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy and apoptosis. However, the relationship between these mechanisms remains unclear. Many methods have been researched to purify chromium, but each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, this review summarizes the hazards of chromium and the mechanisms of chromium toxicity after entering cells and provides a number of methods for chromium contamination management, providing a direction for the next step in chromium toxicology and contamination decontamination research.

Heavy Metals in Foods and Beverages: Global Situation, Health Risks and Reduction Methods

“…Large amounts of Cr(III) negatively influence the absorption of trace elements in animals and humans and affect neuronal functions and kidney and liver activity. In addition to the toxicity demonstrated in the human body, Cr(VI) is also more toxic to the environment, affecting soil fertility and plant development (it changes the pH, affects the enzymatic activities and photosynthesis of plants, causes oxidative DNA damage, and destroys some microorganisms) [ 31 ]. DesMarais and Costa [ 32 ] postulated that most of the existing studies have shown that the inhalation of chromate induces lung cancer.…”

Water Quality Degradation Due to Heavy Metal Contamination: Health Impacts and Eco-Friendly Approaches for Heavy Metal Remediation

“…It also has carcinogenic effects. [97] Hg (II) It causes harmful effects on the living system, including headaches, anorexia, and rash. It also affects the digestive system, reproductive system, kidney, and respiratory system.…”

Kinetics and Thermodynamics Study on Removal of Cr(VI) from Aqueous Solutions Using Acid-Modified Banana Peel (ABP) Adsorbents

“…However, due to its heavy use in industrial activities such as metal finishing, leather tanning, textile production and dyeing, chromium in various forms is found in the atmosphere and in water bodies. This leads to a serious threat to human life and environmental toxicity [ 3 ]. Chromium exists in the following two main forms: hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) and trivalent chromium (Cr (III)).…”

“…However, hexavalent chromium is more toxic to soil, plants, animals and humans than trivalent chromium. Cr (VI) exposure causes reduced soil fertility and affects plant enzyme and photosynthesis, and when directly exposed to humans, it results in poisoning, cancer and cellular damage [3]. Hence, proactive measures Molecules 2024, 29, 990 2 of 18 are imperative for attaining and upholding the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) stipulated maximum limit of 100 µg/L for chromium in drinking water.…”