Toxicity of rare earth elements: An overview on human health impact

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs) are metals including the 15 lanthanides together with Yttrium and Scandium. China is the leading country in their exploitation and production (∼90%). REEs are necessary for the production of several technological devices. This extended use of REEs has raised concerns about human health safety. In this review, we investigated the hazard of REEs to human health and the main gaps into the knowledge like as the need to develop further focused research activity. We categorized the research papers collected into eight main sections: environmental exposure, association of REEs with health problems, exposure to REEs due to lifestyle, REE exposure through the food chain, Gd contrast agents causing health problems, occupational REE exposure, and cytotoxicity studies of REEs. This review provided information about the exposome of REEs (the exposure of REEs to the human body), the existing research data, and the gaps that require attention and must be further investigated. More than one third of the literature about REE toxicity to human health concerns their cytotoxicity to human cell lines, while hair, blood serum and blood are the most studied matrices. The main results evidenced that REEs can enter human body via several routes, are associated with numerous diseases, can cause ROS production, DNA damage and cell death, and are more toxic to cancer cells than normal cells.

Spatial Variability of Rare Earth Elements in Groundwater in the Vicinity of a Coal-Fired Power Plant and Associated Health Risk

“…Extraction of REEs from these minerals may expose workers to gamma radiation and dust inhalation, which eventually might have a negative impact on people’s health [ 18 ]. Pneumoconiosis and pulmonary fibrosis are the most common diseases associated with inhaling REE dust [ 19 , 20 ]. However, it has not yet been determined whether these diseases are caused only by dust inhalation or whether they also occur as a result of radiological exposure [ 19 ].…”

Iron- and protein rich diets may boost hemoglobin levels among informal electronic waste recyclers exposed to metals at Agbogbloshie, Ghana

“…Again, blood levels of Sr documented among male automobile workers (1.5 ± 1.54 mg/L) and their controls (0.22 ± 0.26 mg/L) in Kolkata-India ( Basu et al, 2014 ) were ten times higher than levels detected among e-waste recyclers in the current study. The exposure to higher levels of Ce and La has been found to play a crucial role in the induction and promotion of various types of cancer, including oral, lung, and colon cancer ( Brouziotis et al, 2022 ; Rim et al, 2013 ). Additionally, exposure to La has been linked to the development of gastrointestinal issues, such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhea ( Rothenberg et al, 2015 ).…”

Rare earth contamination of edible vegetation: Ce, La, and summed REE in fungi

“…REE are increasingly used in modern technologies including magnets in electric motors, metallurgy, the electronics sector, wind turbines, crude oil refining, catalytic converters in the automotive industry, and others (Voncken 2016 ; Mordor Intelligence 2022 ). So, in addition to research and investigations into geological resources, production, new applications, inventions, and analytical chemistry, REE also attract growing attention within the environmental, food, and toxicological sciences (Li et al 2013 ; Migaszewski and Gałuszka 2016 ; Doulgeridou et al 2020 ; Piarulli et al 2021 ; Brouziotis et al 2022 ; Falandysz and Fernandes 2023 ). Typically, REE are present in terrestrial feeds and drinking water at low levels, but the current state of knowledge suggests that they are neither essential nor toxic at current occurrence levels in foods, feeds, and environmental media (Squadrone et al 2018 ; Wysocka et al 2018 ).…”