Trail making test performance in youth varies as a function of anatomical coupling between the prefrontal cortex and distributed cortical regions

Abstract

While researchers have gained a richer understanding of the neural correlates of executive function in adulthood, much less is known about how these abilities are represented in the developing brain and what structural brain networks underlie them. Thus, the current study examined how individual differences in executive function, as measured by the Trail Making Test (TMT), relate to structural covariance in the pediatric brain. The sample included 146 unrelated, typically developing youth (80 females), ages 9–14 years, who completed a structural MRI scan of the brain and the Halstead-Reitan TMT (intermediate form). TMT scores used to index executive function included those that evaluated set-shifting ability: Trails B time (number-letter sequencing) and the difference in time between Trails B and A (number sequencing only). Anatomical coupling was measured by examining correlations between mean cortical thickness (MCT) across the entire cortical ribbon and individual vertex thickness measured at ~81,000 vertices. To examine how TMT scores related to anatomical coupling strength, linear regression was utilized and the interaction between age-normed TMT scores and both age and sex-normed MCT was used to predict vertex thickness. Results revealed that stronger Trails B scores were associated with greater anatomical coupling between a large swath of prefrontal cortex and the rest of cortex. For the difference between Trails B and A, a network of regions in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes was found to be more tightly coupled with the rest of cortex in stronger performers. This study is the first to highlight the importance of structural covariance in in the prediction of individual differences in executive function skills in youth. Thus, it adds to the growing literature on the neural correlates of childhood executive functions and identifies neuroanatomic coupling as a biological substrate that may contribute to executive function and dysfunction in childhood.

Acute Sprint Interval Exercise Increases Both Cognitive Functions and Peripheral Neurotrophic Factors in Humans: The Possible Involvement of Lactate

“…We illustrated that acute SIE improved cognitive performance as indicated by shorter response times for the ST and faster completion time of the TMT parts A and B. These results are consistent with the findings of recent neuroimaging studies revealing improved cognitive performance on the ST and TMT A and B after acute aerobic exercise as well as with SIE, both of which are associated with changes of neural activation in the prefrontal cortex (Yanagisawa et al, 2010;Lee et al, 2014;Kujach et al, 2018). Therefore, we can postulate that the current SIE model is beneficial to the prefrontal-dependent cognitive functions in young, healthy adults.…”

“…Accordingly, other animal and human studies have shown significant, positive associations between serum BDNF and cortex BDNF (r = 0.81) at rest as well as elevated BDNF and improved cognitive performance in response to acute exercise (Karege et al, 2002;Kraus et al, 2004;Winter et al, 2007;Griffin et al, 2011). These findings suggest that acute SIE stimulates BDNF and may induce cognitive enhancement related to the above-mentioned changes in neural activation in the prefrontal cortex (Yanagisawa et al, 2010;Lee et al, 2014).…”

Trail Making Test: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish-speaking pediatric population

“…These results are similar with those reported in other studies were the effect of age influenced test performance in children (Beltrán Dulcey & Solís-Uribe, 2012;Lee et al, 2014;Lee et al, 2002). Additionally, a curvilinear effect was observed for the total time score of the TMT A & B.…”

“…As for the variables associated with children's performance on the test, the most influential factors are age and schooling (Beltrán Dulcey & Solís-Uribe, 2012; Lee, Yuen, & Chan, 2002;Lee, Wallace, Raznahan, Clasen, & Giedd, 2014;Periáñez et al, 2007;Zalonis et al, 2008), so that older children and those with more schooling obtain better results. Regarding gender, there are studies that have shown significant differences (Lee et al, 2002), while others have not found any influence (Beltrán Dulcey & Solís-Uribe, 2012;León-Carrión, 1989;Mok, Tsang, Lee, & Llorente, 2008).…”

Functional independence in resting-state connectivity facilitates higher-order cognition

“…The Trail Making Test has not been as thoroughly studied as the Stroop task, leading to less consistent neuroimaging findings. Functional neuroimaging studies have implicated bilateral superior parietal (Allen, Owens, Fong, & Richards, 2011; Moll, de Oliveira-Souza, Moll, Bramati, & Andreiuolo, 2002), while lesion and anatomic studies have implicated bilateral prefrontal cortex (Lee, Wallace, Raznahan, Clasen, & Giedd, 2014; Muir et al, 2015; Pa et al, 2010; Yochim, Baldo, Nelson, & Delis, 2007). However, a Trail Making Test optimized for the fMRI environment reported neither parietal nor frontal involvement (Jacobson, Blanchard, Connolly, Cannon, & Garavan, 2011).…”