Training on Abacus-Based Mental Calculation Enhances Visuospatial Working Memory in Children

Abstract

Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) involves temporary storage and manipulation of an imaginary abacus closely related to the function of visuospatial working memory (VSWM). The present study thus investigated the effects of AMC training on VSWM and its neural correlates. A total of 144 human subjects (67 boys) were assigned to AMC or control groups at their entry to primary school. The AMC group received 2 h AMC training per week for 5 school years, whereas the control group spent the time in activities, such as conventional calculation and reading. Raven's Intelligence Test was administered both before and after training. Two arithmetic tests and a VSWM task were conducted after training. Among these participants, fMRI data were collected from 64 children for the VSWM task. Behavioral results indicated that the AMC group outperformed controls on both arithmetic and VSWM tasks, but not on Raven's Intelligence Test. While the two groups activated similar regions during the VSWM task, the AMC group showed greater activation than the controls in frontal, parietal, and occipital areas. Interestingly, the activation of right middle frontal gyrus mediated the relation between the arithmetic ability and the VSWM performance in the AMC group, suggesting that the frontal region may be the neural substrate underlying the transfer effect from AMC training to VSWM. Although the transfer effects seem quite limited considering the length and intensity of the training, these findings suggest that long-term AMC training not only improves arithmetic ability but also has a potential positive effect on VSWM.

A Review of the Effects of Abacus Training on Cognitive Functions and Neural Systems in Humans

“…However, the study utilized a passive control group that could not rule out confounds from placebo effects. Importantly, Wang et al (2019) also found positive effects of AMC training on visuospatial n-back performance when using an active control group, indicating that the transfer effect on memory updating can go beyond placebo effects. Moreover, previous work has suggested that AMC training enables users to simultaneously operate imaginary beads in different locations ( Stigler, 1984 ).…”

“…To date, although many studies have shown that cognitive training can improve performance in a variety of cognitive tasks ( Diamond and Lee, 2011 ; Au et al, 2015 ; Benz et al, 2016 ), many other fail to replicate these positive effects, especially when it comes to improving domain-general cognitive abilities (far transfer) ( Redick et al, 2013 ; Melby-Lervåg et al, 2016 ; Sala and Gobet, 2019 ). Of particularly, regarding the far transfer to fluid intelligence, existing evidence from many recent cognitive training studies ( Redick et al, 2013 ; Thompson et al, 2013 ; Melby-Lervåg et al, 2016 ; Sala and Gobet, 2019 ), including AMC findings in the study of Wang et al (2019) , indicate very limited cognitive transfer. Thus, AMC training may be another example of cognitive training that shows benefits only in tasks tightly related to the trained tasks (near transfer).…”

“…According to Baddeley’s theory, working memory includes three key components, namely visuospatial sketch, phonological loop, and central executive ( Baddeley, 2012 ). Although AMC training is not originally designed as a working memory training program, many researchers argue that the operational processes of AMC involve multiple components of working memory and may thus exert a transfer effect ( Lee et al, 2007 ; Dong et al, 2016 ; Wang et al, 2019 ; Zhou et al, 2020 ).…”

“…While the use of a passive control group could eliminate test-retest effects, there was a possibility that the observed positive effect was accounted for by a placebo effect ( Shipstead et al, 2012 ). Recently, Wang et al (2019) conducted a 5 years longitudinal study in a sample of 144 primary school children. The participants were randomly divided into two groups who either received AMC training from the 1st to the 6th grade or received similar amounts of additional standard math learning.…”

“…Recently, an increasing number of psychological studies have investigated the potential cognitive benefits of AMC training, suggesting that AMC training may be a promising tool in promoting cognition ( Stigler, 1984 ; Miller and Stigler, 1991 ; Hanakawa et al, 2003 ; Chen et al, 2006 ; Lee et al, 2007 ; Ku et al, 2012 ; Tanaka et al, 2012 ; Yao et al, 2015 ; Wang et al, 2015 , 2019 ; Weng et al, 2017 ; Zhou et al, 2019 ). Moreover, similar to other cognitive training programs, AMC training has been also found to produce functional and structural changes in the brain that may account for behavioral improvements in cognitive function ( Hu et al, 2011 ; Wang et al, 2017 ; Weng et al, 2017 ; Zhou et al, 2019 , 2020 ).…”