Training Willpower: Reducing Costs and Valuing Effort

Abstract

The integrative model of effortful control presented in a previous article aimed to specify the neurophysiological bases of mental effort. This model assumes that effort reflects three different inter-related aspects of the same adaptive function. First, a mechanism anchored in the salience network that makes decisions about the effort that should be engaged in the current task in view of costs and benefits associated with the achievement of the task goal. Second, a top-down control signal generated by the mechanism of effort that modulates neuronal activity in brain regions involved in the current task to filter pertinent information. Third, a feeling that emerges in awareness during effortful tasks and reflects the costs associated with goal-directed behavior. The aim of the present article is to complete this model by proposing that the capacity to exert effortful control can be improved through training programs. Two main questions relative to this possible strengthening of willpower are addressed in this paper. The first question concerns the existence of empirical evidence that supports gains in effortful control capacity through training. We conducted a review of 63 meta-analyses that shows training programs are effective in improving performance in effortful tasks tapping executive functions and/or self-control with a small to large effect size. Moreover, physical and mindfulness exercises could be two promising training methods that would deserve to be included in training programs aiming to strengthen willpower. The second question concerns the neural mechanisms that could explain these gains in effortful control capacity. Two plausible brain mechanisms are proposed: (1) a decrease in effort costs combined with a greater efficiency of brain regions involved in the task and (2) an increase in the value of effort through operant conditioning in the context of high effort and high reward. The first mechanism supports the hypothesis of a strengthening of the capacity to exert effortful control whereas the second mechanism supports the hypothesis of an increase in the motivation to exert this control. In the last part of the article, we made several recommendations to improve the effectiveness of interventional studies aiming to train this adaptive function.“Keep the faculty of effort alive in you by a little gratuitous exercise every day.”James (1918, p. 127)

A Behavioral Perspective for Improving Exercise Adherence

“…For example, exercising regularly increases people’s ability to inhibit bad habits, such as staying at home rather than going for a walk, and the positive effects of chronic exercise, such as improved quality of life, increase the value that people will attribute to exercise (or effort). Relatedly, a recent review by Audiffren et al [ 39 ] on training willpower suggested that regular exercise decreases effort costs and increases the value of effort. These mechanisms are involved in exercise adherence.…”

Three Pathways Into Chronic Lack of Energy as a Mental Health Complaint

“…The term “brain resources” refers to energetical systems, such as the noradrenergic, cholinergic, and dopaminergic systems (e.g., Pribram & McGuinness, 1975), and large neuronal networks, such as the salience and the executive control network (Seeley, 2019). Willpower would involve a combination of both energetical and functional resources (André et al., 2019; Audiffren et al., 2022). Specifically, chronic depletion refers to the enduring incapacity to use compensatory strategies (additional effort) in case of fatigue or lack of motivation.…”

Transferability and sustainability of process-based multi-task adaptive cognitive training in community-dwelling older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial

“…Previous studies suggested that cognitive training is a potentially effective way to improve EF in older adults with MCI [ 6 , 7 ]. Two recent studies suggest that process-based cognitive training focusing primarily EF is particularly effective among the various training approaches [ 8 , 9 ]. Process-based cognitive training refers to the repetitive practice of computerized and/or manual cognitive tasks without explicit strategies [ 8 , 9 ].…”

“…Two recent studies suggest that process-based cognitive training focusing primarily EF is particularly effective among the various training approaches [ 8 , 9 ]. Process-based cognitive training refers to the repetitive practice of computerized and/or manual cognitive tasks without explicit strategies [ 8 , 9 ]. Several studies provided evidence to support the effectiveness of process-based cognitive training in enhancing EF among both younger and older individuals [ 10 , 11 ].…”