Trans Fatty Acids in Human Milk in Canada Declined with the Introduction of Trans Fat Food Labeling

Abstract

Trans fatty acids in human milk have raised concerns because of possible adverse effects on infant growth and development. Analyses of human milk in the late 1990s in Canada showed high amounts of trans fatty acids from partially hydrogenated oils. Canada introduced labeling of trans fatty acids on retail foods in 2003. We analyzed trans and cis unsaturated and saturated fatty acids in human milk collected from 87 women in 2004-2006 and compared the levels to those in milk collected from 103 women in 1998 and analyzed using similar methods. The total trans fatty acids (mean +/- SEM, g/100 g fatty acids) in human milk in Canada decreased significantly, from 7.1 +/- 0.32 in 1998 to 6.2 +/- 0.48, 5.3 +/- 0.49, and 4.6 +/- 0.32 over 3 consecutive 5-mo periods from November 2004 to January 2006. The milk total trans fatty acids were significantly and inversely related to 16:0, 18:2(n-6), 18:3(n-3), 20:4(n-6), 22:4(n-6), and 22:5(n-6) and positively related to 18:0 and conjugated linolenic acids (P < 0.05, n = 190). The estimated exposures of exclusively breast-fed infants to trans fatty acids decreased from a mean and 95th percentile intake of 2.0 and 4.4 g x infant(-1) x d(-1) in 1998 to 1.33 and 2.41 g x infant(-1) x d(-1), respectively, in late 2005. The estimated intake of the mothers was 4.0 (range 0.51-12.3) and 2.2 (0.56-7.65) g x person(-1) x d(-1) in 1998 and late 2005, respectively. Our studies show trans fatty acids have decreased in human milk in Canada, which suggests a concomitant decrease in trans fatty acid intake among lactating women and breast-fed infants.

The effectiveness of policies for reducing dietary trans fat: a systematic review of the evidence

“…Each study used a different measure of intake. In Canada, mandatory TFA labelling combined with voluntary limits was associated with a 35% reduc- 23 and a 30% reduction in dietary intake in the general population. 26 In the United States, mandatory TFA labelling was associated with a 58% reduction in TFA levels in blood plasma.…”

“…A study conducted in the United States 21 found a 58% reduction in TFA in plasma following mandatory TFA labelling and two Canadian studies observed a 30% decrease in dietary intake 26 and a 35% decrease in TFA in breast milk, 23 respectively, after the introduction of a more restrictive policy. Although these studies are not directly comparable because the outcome measures were different, since the only source of TFA in plasma and breast milk is from dietary intake, the difference is worth noting.…”

Human milk: maternal dietary lipids and infant development

“…1 g DHA/100 g total fatty acids to 1 . 0 g DHA/100 g total fatty acids in the milk fat of women who are not taking DHA supplements (Innis & King, 1999;Friesen & Innis, 2006). This range in mean values is similar across different countries (Innis, 1992(Innis, , 2004Jensen, 1999;Yukas et al 2006).…”

“…High amounts of trans-fatty acids in human milk have raised concerns because of the possible adverse effects on essential fatty acid and lipid metabolism, as well as incorporation of unusual fatty acid isomers into the infant's tissues (Innis, 2006). The levels of trans-fatty acids in human milk in Canada have now decreased with the introduction of food labelling and regulations to restrict the amounts of trans-fatty acids in retail foods (Friesen & Innis, 2006). The effects of maternal dietary fat composition on the n-6 and n-3 fatty acid composition of human milk fatty acids are clearly shown by: a consideration of the changes in human-milk fatty acids over the last 50 years; a comparison of human milk fatty acids among women following vegan or mixed diets of different fat composition; the results of controlled interventions to alter maternal dietary fat intake.…”

Feasibility of recommending certain replacement or alternative fats

“…Trans-fatty acid labelling of foods became mandatory in Canada in December 2005. Friesen and Innis (2006) used the relation between breast milk and dietary TFAs to predict that TFA intake of women in their study decreased from 3.4 to 2.7 to 2.2 g/day during the corresponding periods. Results from the Canadian study suggest that mandatory labelling had an immediate effect on the amount of TFAs in the food supply.…”