The evolution of continuing public management education The question of how to recruit and educate those who work in the service of the state as leaders and managers, to enhance dedication, relevant and state-of-the art competencies and the right ethical habitus, is an ancient one (Rutgers, 1997). It was debated by Plato, Aristotle and Seneca in the Greco-Roman era more than two millennia ago, was organized in the classical Chinese mandarin system around 600 AD and was later emulated in other East Asian countries such as Japan and Korea (Kim, 2017). The question has been a core issue in public administration since its establishment as an academic field at the end of the 19th century (Weber, 1968;Wilson, 1887;Wren and Bedeian, 2020).Issues concerning public management education (PME) are related to the properties of the public sector to be managed, and these properties changed dramatically, though with large variations, across the globe in the 20th century (Hansen et al., 2020;Tanzi and Schuknecht, 2000).These changes were characterized by a move from relatively small states, as indicated by the level of public spending, around 1,900 primarily responsible for security (military and police) and with small welfare expenses to much larger welfare states with substantially expanded responsibilities at the end of the century providing, besides security, education, healthcare services, social security and redistribution of welfare between generations and social groups.The post-war decades from the 1950s to 1980s in particular saw a rapid expansion of the welfare state. The trend was global, but it was especially strong in more wealthy economies and especially in Northern Europe. For instance, the small Scandinavian states -Denmark, Norway and Swedenexpanded government spending from 10, 14 and 17% of national gross domestic product (GDP) in 1951 to 56, 49 and 44% of GDP in 1980, respectively (see Table 1). Larger wealthy economies like the US, Germany and Japan expanded government spending from 13%, 30 and 17% in 1951 to 34%, 48 and 33% of GDP in 1980, respectively (Ortiz-Ospina and Roser, 2018. Large, recently independent and less wealthy countries like India and Indonesia expanded government spending from 6 to 17% in 1951 to 17 and 22% of GDP in 1980, respectively (see Table 1).The public sector expansion trend has been less pronounced since 1980. The overall trend is that it has continued or stagnated, but in most cases, it has not been reversed. Among the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, the general government expenditure averaged 40.8% of GDP in 2019, and among 27 of the 36 OECD countries, government expenditures were between 35 and 50% of GDP. For instance, in 2019, general government expenditure was 41% of GDP in the UK and 38% of GDP in the USA (OECD, 2021).The point in presenting these statistics is to show that the public sector, although with important differences between countries, expanded enormously in the post-war decades in most countries, and there was thus a need...