Transgenerational trauma in Rwandan genocidal rape survivors and their children: A culturally enhanced bioecological approach

Abstract

Multiple theories, including attachment, family systems, and epigenetics, among many others, have been invoked to explain the mechanisms through which trauma is transmitted from one generation to the next. To move toward integration of extant theories and, thus, acknowledgement of multiple pathways for transmission of trauma, the authors explore the potential of applying a culturally enhanced bioecological theory to transgenerational trauma (TGT). Data from in-depth qualitative interviews in Rwanda more than two decades after the genocide, with 44 mothers of children born of genocidal rape, and in-depth interviews and focus groups with a total of 60 youth born of genocidal rape, were analyzed according to the processes of culturally enhanced bioecological theory. The findings from a hybrid inductive and deductive thematic analysis suggest that a culturally enhanced bioecological theory of human development allows for an integrated, multi-dimensional analysis of individual, family, cultural, and societal factors of transmission of TGT. Some facets of the data, however, are not accounted for in the theory, specifically, how some mothers were able to create and sustain a positive bond with their children born of genocidal rape, despite societal and family pressure to abandon or abort them. Nonetheless, the findings demonstrate how a culturally enhanced bioecological theory can be an important overarching framework for developing policies and practices to help interrupt or mitigate TGT, strengthen resilience, and facilitate healing for children born of genocidal rape, their mothers, and their families.

Health and social consequences for survivors of genocidal rape: A systematic scoping review

“…A loss of trust and social cohesion with both physical and cultural fragmentation continuing years after a genocide were additional social consequences (Akhavan et al., 2020; Vale, 2020). Six studies noted genocidal rape survivors’ experiences with poverty and financial hardship (Crosby et al., 2016; Denov & Piolanti, 2019; Kahn & Denov, 2022; Kantengwa, 2014; Russell et al., 2016; Walstrom et al., 2013). Noted poverty‐related issues included poor access to medical care and associated resources and the loss of housing.…”

The aftermath of gendered violence: Kinship and affect in post-genocide Rwanda

“…Erjavec and Volčič (2010), in their study of adolescents born as a result of rape conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, revealed key themes, including adolescents experiencing a continued sense of hostility and stigma even after the end of the war, and feeling as if they belong to the 'other'. Children were also found to experience guilt and reversed roles in the parental relationship, becoming carers of their mothers (Kahn and Denov, 2022). Rwandan cultural relational ontologies are constituted by social networks and defined by relational roles such as that of a parent or a child (Eramian, 2017).…”

Perceptions of the Intervention Utility and Effectiveness in Supporting and Reintegrating Youths Born of Genocidal Rape in Rwanda

“…8 To deal with their challenging condition, some turned to substance abuse or sex work to act out their suffering. 3,4,8,9 Though these offspring are a vulnerable population with a greater risk of experiencing stigma, mental disorders, substance abuse, and poor academic performance, 1,[5][6][7] many studies have generally focused on lived and mothering experiences, 2,4,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] and mothers' needs and intervention. 3,17 Few studies of children have emphasised children's challenges and psychosocial problems, 11,18-21, experience of disclosure, 22 and children's needs.…”

“…Though these offspring are a vulnerable population with a greater risk of experiencing stigma, mental disorders, substance abuse, and poor academic performance, 1 , 5–7 many studies have generally focused on lived and mothering experiences, 2 , 4 , 9–16 and mothers’ needs and intervention. 3 , 17 Few studies of children have emphasised children’s challenges and psychosocial problems, 11 , 18–21 , experience of disclosure, 22 and children’s needs. 23 A study by Hogwood et al, 22 primarily aimed at exploring how young people experienced the disclosure and how this affected their sense of identity revealed that the supported disclosure helped children to understand more fully themselves, their identity, and parentage, and to answer questions about their absent or unknown fathers and the way they had been treated in their families and the community.…”