Transitioning Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance <scp>Containing</scp> Fire Fighting Foams to New Alternatives: Evolving Methods and Best Practices to Protect the Environment

Horst, John; Quinnan, Joseph; McDonough, Jeffrey T.; Lang, Johnsie R.; Storch, Peter; Burdick, Jeffrey; Theriault, Corey

doi:10.1111/gwmr.12444

Cited by 12 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 10 publications

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“…The current most efficient solution to extinguish liquid hydrocarbon (Class B) pool fires involves firefighting foams containing fluorinated surfactants . However, fluorocarbon surfactants are unsafe long-chain perfluoroalkyl substances (LCPFAs, C n F 2 n +1 , n ≥ 7), sometimes referred to as “forever chemicals” in popular media due to their persistence in the environment and toxicological/bioaccumulative impact on humans and wildlife. − Significant efforts were undertaken to develop fluorine-free alternatives over the years . Nevertheless, none of those fluorine-free foams extinguish a hydrocarbon pool fire as fast and efficiently as fluorocarbon-containing AFFFs (Aqueous Film Forming Foams). − The efficiency of AFFFs is based on the unique physicochemical properties of these foams that are considerably different from all of the other currently available firefighting compositions.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Fluorine-Free Extinguishing of a Hydrocarbon Pool Fire with a Suspension of Glass Bubbles Grafted with Nanoscale Polymer Layers

Snipes,

Melara,

Tiiara

et al. 2023

ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces

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The current most efficient solution to extinguish liquid hydrocarbon (class B) pool fires involves fire-fighting foams containing fluorinated surfactants. However, fluorocarbon surfactants are unsafe due to their environmental persistence and negative toxicological/bioaccumulative impact. To this end, we show that fluorine-free aqueous suspensions of Glass Bubbles (GB) modified with hydrophilic polymer grafted layers can efficiently extinguish hydrocarbon pool fires. Namely, GB grafted with poly(oligo (ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) (POEGMA), GB-G was fabricated employing “grafting-through” and “grafting-from” methods and used to obtain the suspensions. It was found that the GB suspension, with a grafted layer of higher molecular weight and lower grafting density (GB-GL), proved superior to the more densely grafted GB-GH and nongrafted GB-0 system. The GB-GL suspensions displayed less negative spreading coefficients and viscosities lower than those of GB-GH/GB-0 compositions. When siloxane–polyoxyethylene surfactant was added to all GB suspensions, the interfacial properties were dominated by the surfactant, with all suspensions having the same positive spreading coefficient. However, the GB-GL-surfactant composition had the lowest viscosity among the suspensions studied in this work. Specifically, the viscosity of GB-GH and GB-0 suspensions at a shear rate of 77 s–1 was ∼110% and 70% higher than that of GB-GL. Due to the lower viscosity, the GB-GL suspension demonstrated the most efficient spreading over model hydrocarbon solid (polyethylene) and liquid (hexadecane) surfaces when the surfactant was added. The suspension also showed the best performance in the retardation of hexane evaporation when placed over the heated hexane pool. After 50 min, the amount of hexane that evaporated through GB-GH and GB-0 suspensions was ∼8 and 11 times higher, respectively, compared to the GB-GL suspension. We found that the GB-GL-surfactant system was the most efficient GB suspension in extinguishing the fire due to its superior spreading and sealing ability. It was within 10% of fluorine-containing foam’s fire extinguishment performance. The GB suspensions are much safer in terms of burnback resistance as a torch applied directly to the suspension after extinguishment could not reignite the fire. The GB material is recyclable, since it can be collected and reused after application to a fire.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Fluorine-Free Extinguishing of a Hydrocarbon Pool Fire with a Suspension of Glass Bubbles Grafted with Nanoscale Polymer Layers

Snipes,

Melara,

Tiiara

et al. 2023

ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces

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“…Since 2006, legacy AFFFs have mostly been replaced by short-chain AFFFs containing fluorosurfactants with six or fewer carbons, as they are thought to be less toxic and bioaccumulative. − However, short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are as persistent as long-chain PFAAs and have different but not less alarming properties of concern such as their low adsorption potential and high mobility, low removal from water, and enrichment in edible parts of plants . Due to the growing public concern over PFAS contamination, the accelerating pace of PFAS regulation by U.S. federal agencies and local governments, − and the PFAS-related environmental liabilities, replacement of PFAS-containing AFFFs with fluorine (F)-free firefighting foams is an urgent need for the DoD. , The 2020 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) stipulates the phaseout of fluorosurfactant-containing foams by October 2024 and development of a revised military standard (MIL-SPEC) to include an F-free foam alternative no later than January 2023. , …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…5 Due to the growing public concern over PFAS contamination, the accelerating pace of PFAS regulation by U.S. federal agencies and local governments, 6−9 and the PFAS-related environmental liabilities, 10 replacement of PFAScontaining AFFFs with fluorine (F)-free firefighting foams is an urgent need for the DoD. 11,12 The 2020 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) stipulates the phaseout of fluorosurfactant-containing foams by October 2024 and development of a revised military standard (MIL-SPEC) to include an F-free foam alternative no later than January 2023. 12,13 International efforts to develop F-free AFFF alternatives have resulted in some F-free options being commercially available.…”

Section: ■ Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…11,12 The 2020 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) stipulates the phaseout of fluorosurfactant-containing foams by October 2024 and development of a revised military standard (MIL-SPEC) to include an F-free foam alternative no later than January 2023. 12,13 International efforts to develop F-free AFFF alternatives have resulted in some F-free options being commercially available. However, little is known about the ecotoxicity and environmental impacts of existing F-free alternatives.…”

Section: ■ Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Sublethal Toxicity of Fluorine-Free Firefighting Foams in Soil Invertebrate Caenorhabditis elegans

Ceja-Navarro

2022

Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett.

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Fluorinated aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) presenting human health and environmental concerns will be replaced imminently with fluorine (F)-free foams by the U.S. Department of Defense and other organizations. However, the environmental impacts of F-free foams are still unclear. Thus, ecotoxicity assessment is urgently needed to avoid replacement regret. In this study, we used model organism Caenorhabditis elegans to evaluate sublethal toxicity of six F-free AFFF alternatives and a current short-chain AFFF in soil invertebrates. We developed a rapid counting and measuring method for assessing sublethal toxicity in C. elegans. All tested formulations showed adverse impacts on the growth of C. elegans at concentrations lower than or close to the practical application concentration in the field. Also, five of six F-free alternatives caused reduced reproduction in C. elegans. Analysis of the chemical composition of the formulations indicated that the types and concentrations of surfactants may be linked to the observed toxicity. Formulations containing higher concentrations of hydrocarbon surfactants were more toxic than other formulations to C. elegans. This study provides ecotoxicological data that, combined with data from all related ongoing research, should be used in decision making regarding recommendations for manufacturing and use of candidate F-free foams.

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“…Currently, multiple technologies are used to consolidate large volumes of marginally contaminated matrices into small, highly concentrated volumes for energy-intensive destruction . Commercially available technologies to address AFFF-impacted source zones, however, are limited − to in situ stabilization and excavation with offsite disposal/destruction or onsite management using soil washing or thermal desorption .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Field-Scale Demonstration of PFAS Leachability Following In Situ Soil Stabilization

et al. 2021

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A field-scale validation is summarized comparing the efficacy of commercially available stabilization amendments with the objective of mitigating per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) leaching from aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)-impacted source zones. The scope of this work included bench-scale testing to evaluate multiple amendments and application concentrations to mitigate PFAS leachability and the execution of field-scale soil mixing in an AFFF-impacted fire-training area with nearly 2.5 years of post-soil mixing monitoring to validate reductions in PFAS leachability. At the bench scale, several amendments were evaluated and the selection of two amendments for field-scale evaluation was informed: FLUORO-SORB Adsorbent (FS) and RemBind (RB). Five ∼28 m 3 test pits (approximately 3 m wide by 3 m long by 3 m deep) were mixed at a site using conventional construction equipment. One control test pit (Test Pit 1) included Portland cement (PC) only (5% dry weight basis). The other four test pits (Test Pits 2 through 5) compared 5 and 10% ratios (dry weight basis) of FS and RB (also with PC). Five separate monitoring events included two to three sample cores collected from each test pit for United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Method 1315 leaching assessment. After 1 year, a mass balance for each test pit was attempted comparing the total PFAS soil mass before, during, and after leach testing. Bench-scale and field-scale data were in good agreement and demonstrated >99% decrease in total PFAS leachability (mass basis; >98% mole basis) as confirmed by the total oxidizable precursor assay, strongly supporting the chemical stabilization of PFAS.

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Transitioning Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance Containing Fire Fighting Foams to New Alternatives: Evolving Methods and Best Practices to Protect the Environment

Cited by 12 publications

References 10 publications

Fluorine-Free Extinguishing of a Hydrocarbon Pool Fire with a Suspension of Glass Bubbles Grafted with Nanoscale Polymer Layers

Fluorine-Free Extinguishing of a Hydrocarbon Pool Fire with a Suspension of Glass Bubbles Grafted with Nanoscale Polymer Layers

Sublethal Toxicity of Fluorine-Free Firefighting Foams in Soil Invertebrate Caenorhabditis elegans

Field-Scale Demonstration of PFAS Leachability Following In Situ Soil Stabilization

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