Translating Race across Time and Space: The Creation of Somali Bantu Ethnicity

Abstract

This article reviews the creation of Somali Bantu ethnicity as an object of humanitarian intervention during Somalia's civil war. A variety of local, regional and international actors combined to create the ethnonym Somali Bantu for a group of refugees identified as a persecuted minority by the UNHCR and the US government and selected for resettlement in the United States. I track the emergence of the name and its affective dimensions for those who embrace Somali Bantu identity and assess criticisms of its authenticity and legitimacy. The creation of Somali Bantu identity reveals critical dimensions of how race is translated across time and space. Since a fundamental dimension of Somali Bantu identity is based on presumptions of racial difference, the article traces the salience of constructed difference for social hierarchies within Somalia, colonial projects in Somalia, refugee camp life in Kenya, US resettlement policy and diaspora politics in the United States.

“We would never forget who we are”: resettlement, cultural negotiation, and family relationships among Somali Bantu refugees

“…The Bantu in Somalia were treated as second-class citizens and suffered significant discrimination, which contributed to widespread poverty, lack of access to schools, and limited land and political rights [27, 29]. Such rights violations intensified when the civil war broke out in 1991 and the Somali Bantu were exposed to high levels of war violence including killings, rape and forced military recruitment [28, 30]. To escape the brutality, many fled their homes to nearby refugee camps in Kenya, experiencing further subjugation while living in some of the most insecure sections of the refugee camps [28, 30].…”

“…In 1999, the United States (US) recognized the Somali Bantu as a persecuted minority group and moved to admit up to 12,000 Somali Bantu into the country [30]. Resettlement was delayed with the events of 9/11, and the majority came to the US between 2004 and 2006 [30].…”

“…Resettlement was delayed with the events of 9/11, and the majority came to the US between 2004 and 2006 [30]. Somali Bantu were granted refugee status, and are eligible for citizenship after having been in the country a minimum of 5 years; anecdotally the vast majority of Somali Bantu are now American citizens.…”

The Role of Shift-Induced Interference in the Development of a Typologically Rare Phonological Contrast in Somali Bantu Kizigua

“…In doing so, it invites future research to put more careful consideration on how contact-induced changes actually take place. Besteman (2012) discusses the ethnic term "Somali Bantu" as a relatively recent creation that developed in the context of the Somali Civil War. Nurse (2010) has used the term in a linguistic context.…”

Refugees, Foreign Nationals, andWageni: Comparing African Responses to Somali Migration

“…Although slavery has long since ended, the descendants of these slaves, known as Somali Bantu, continued to face marginalization and persecution due to their cultural and physical differences; many spoke the languages of their ancestors and did not integrate into Somali society (Lehman & Eno 2003). When violence broke out and people fled Somalia in the 1990s, a small fraction of refugees traced their ancestry to ethnic groups in Tanzania (Besteman 2012; Menkhaus 2010). Indeed, some Somali refugees spoke Kizigua, a language of northeastern Tanzania, when they arrived (Bannon & Wolfcarius 2009).…”