Traumatic Distress, Alexithymia, Dissociation, and Risk of Addiction During the First Wave of COVID-19 in Italy: Results from a Cross-sectional Online Survey on a Non-clinical Adult Sample

Abstract

This study aimed to explore the prevalence of post-traumatic distress, alexithymia, dissociation, and addictive behaviors during the stressful situation of the COVID-19 pandemic. It also aimed to determine whether trauma, alexithymia, and dissociation can effectively predict the risk of addiction in non-clinical subjects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Two hundred nineteen subjects completed a web survey during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Italy, including the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), the Dissociative Experience Scale-II (DES-II), and the Addictive Behavior Questionnaire (ABQ). Females reported higher levels of COVID-19-related traumatic stress than males (p = 0.009). A greater fear of getting COVID-19 was associated with significantly high IES-R scores (p < 0.0005). IES-R total score was significantly lower in the "not internetaddicted" group than that in the "internet-addicted" group (p < 0.0005). Furthermore, DES-II total score was significantly higher in the "internet-addicted" group than that in the "non internet-addicted" group (p < 0.0005). No statistically significant score differences were highlighted in the "alcohol" group. Future research with longitudinal studies and larger samples will have to clarify whether trauma, alexithymia, and dissociation can effectively predict the risk of addiction in non-clinical subjects during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Late Adolescents’ Attachment to Parents and Peers and Psychological Distress Resulting from COVID-19. A Study on the Mediation Role of Alexithymia

“…Neurobiological studies have also shown that alexithymia is associated with dysregulated cortisol levels in response to stressful situations [100,101], resulting in higher anxiety and depressive symptoms [102,103]. Higher psychopathological symptoms due to COVID-19 among individuals with high levels of alexithymic have also been shown [61][62][63][64], in line with our findings.…”

“…Moreover, recent studies have shown the complex relationship between individuals' attachment, alexithymia, and psychopathological difficulties, showing that adolescents' alexithymic traits played a mediation role in the effect of attachment on psychopathological difficulties [69,70]. Overall, findings from international literature have shown the predictive role of attachment on levels of alexithymia [67,68], that in turn predicted psychopathological outcomes resulting from COVID-19 [61][62][63][64]. This evidence suggests that adolescent's attachment could influence psychological responses to the COVID-19 pandemic more directly than via alexithymia.…”

“…Consequently, a late adolescent with difficulties in identifying one's feelings may be at higher risk in the face of a stressful experience, due to deficiencies in symbolically thinking [58] and in processing and regulating his/her emotions and the related responses [59,60]. Recently, the predictive effect of alexithymic traits on psychopathological symptoms resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic has also been reported [61][62][63][64]. Interestingly, international research has widely shown that insecure attachment exerted a significant contribution in individuals' emotional regulation difficulties [65,66], predisposing adolescents to higher levels of alexithymic traits [67,68].…”

Financial and Mental Health Concerns of Impoverished Urban-Dwelling Bangladeshi People During COVID-19

“…The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted mental wellbeing disproportionately among specific groups including adolescents, students, women, and healthcare workers, among others (Biviá-Roig et al, 2020;Commodari and La Rosa, 2020;Wang and Zhao, 2020;Tasnim et al, 2021). Moreover, increases in drinking behaviors, problematic use of smartphone, internet, social media, gaming, and other addictive behaviors have been reported during the pandemic (Higuchi et al, 2020;Islam et al, 2020e, 2021e;Rodriguez et al, 2020;La Rosa et al, 2021). These addictive behaviors may be linked to pandemic-related traumatic events (e.g., lockdowns) and have been associated with mental health concerns including anxiety and depression (Higuchi et al, 2020;Rodriguez et al, 2020;Islam et al, 2021e;La Rosa et al, 2021).…”

“…Moreover, increases in drinking behaviors, problematic use of smartphone, internet, social media, gaming, and other addictive behaviors have been reported during the pandemic (Higuchi et al, 2020;Islam et al, 2020e, 2021e;Rodriguez et al, 2020;La Rosa et al, 2021). These addictive behaviors may be linked to pandemic-related traumatic events (e.g., lockdowns) and have been associated with mental health concerns including anxiety and depression (Higuchi et al, 2020;Rodriguez et al, 2020;Islam et al, 2021e;La Rosa et al, 2021).…”