Tree Mortality During Early Forest Development: A Long-Term Study of Rates, Causes, and Consequences

Abstract

Tree mortality is a critical but understudied process in coniferous forest development. Current successional models assume that mortality during early forest development is dominated by density‐dependent processes, but few long‐term studies exist to test this assumption. We examined changes in forest structure and patterns of tree mortality 14–38 years (1979–2001) after clear‐cut logging of two experimental watersheds in the western Cascade Range of Oregon, USA. We sampled 193 permanent plots (250 m2) six times generating 75126 data records and 7146 incidents of mortality. Mean density peaked at >3000 stems/ha (≥1.4 m tall) after 22–25 years; bole biomass increased continuously to >100 Mg/ha. At final sampling, stem density varied by two orders of magnitude and biomass by a factor of 10 among sample plots. Suppression mortality occurred in >80% of plots and was >2.5 times as frequent as mechanical damage (uprooting, stem snap, and crushing). However, biomass lost to mortality via mechanical damage was nearly four times that lost to suppression, a result of episodic storms that created windthrow patches, with some plots losing 30–50% of biomass. Total annual mortality increased from 1.0% to 5.3% of stems over the study period and was highly variable among species. Although mortality rates were highest for sprouting hardwoods (reaching 9.7% in Cornus nuttallii), biomass of most hardwood species increased through canopy closure as dominant stems achieved large sizes. Shade‐tolerant conifers (Tsuga heterophylla and Thuja plicata), typically assumed to be absent or to play a minor role in early forest development, accounted for 26% of stems after 38 years. In regression tree models, environmental attributes of plots had limited ability to predict mortality. Instead, stem density prior to canopy closure was the strongest predictor of cumulative mortality (either suppression or mechanical damage). Our long‐term studies suggest that current models of early forest development are overly simplistic, particularly in their treatment of mortality. Although suppression was the dominant demographic process, mechanical damage yielded greater loss of biomass and greater structural heterogeneity through creation of windthrow gaps. Thus, gap‐forming processes that operate late in succession and contribute to structural complexity in old‐growth forests can also occur early in stand development.

Forest Restoration Using Variable Density Thinning: Lessons from Douglas-Fir Stands in Western Oregon

“…They are too small for many cavity nesters, tend to fall over quickly, and do not create large pieces of downed wood. In contrast, mortality of large trees is typically more stochastic, occurring at irregular intervals and spacings [26]. As expected, restoration treatments that removed most smaller trees led to a reduction of density dependent mortality [15].…”

“…This approach had the additional advantage that it did not result in an even distribution of downed wood at very low densities. Instead, this procedure resulted in a more natural heterogeneous spatial pattern [26], including patches with higher concentrations and areas with no added downed wood. Figure 4 presents a simplified, visual summary of the vegetation responses that are discussed in more detail below.…”

Forest ecosystems, disturbance, and climatic change in Washington State, USA

“…Terrestrial ecosystems may experience widespread mortality of vegetation from the direct effects of changes in temperature and precipitation (Breshears et al 2005, Lutz and Halpern, 2006, van Mantgem and Stephenson, 2007van Mantgem et al 2009) and from increased extent, intensity, and frequency of disturbance Gedalof et al, 2005, Littell, 2006). New ecosystem types, comprising heretofore rare or non-existent combinations of species, may succeed those no longer adapted to new climates, in turn changing landscape structure and spatial pattern across a range of scales (Davis 1986).…”

Canopy closure altered biomass allocation in young spruce stand

“…In general, survival and growth of trees in young stands is predominantly controlled by light conditions (e.g. Claveau et al 2002;Metslaid et al 2005;Lutz, Halpern 2006). This indicates that high tree mortality in young stands was reflected not only in the number of live trees, but also in other stand characteristics, especially basal area and mean height.…”