Trend of Antimicrobial Use in Food-Producing Animals from 2018 to 2020 in Nepal

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is a global public health problem and is primarily driven by the widespread overuse of antibiotics. However, antimicrobial use data in animals are not readily available due to the absence of a national database in many developing countries, including Nepal. This study was conducted to estimate the quantities of antimicrobials available in Nepal as an indicator of their use in food-producing animals between 2018 and 2020. Data were collected through surveys targeting major stakeholders: (i) the Department of Drug Administration (DDA), the Government of Nepal (GoN) for the authorized antimicrobials for veterinary use in Nepal, (ii) veterinary pharmaceuticals for antimicrobials produced in Nepal, (iii) the DDA and Veterinary Importers Association for antimicrobials bought by veterinary drug importers, and (iv) the Department of Customs, GoN, for antibiotics sourced through customs. Data showed that in the 3 years, a total of 96 trade names, comprising 35 genera of antibiotics representing 10 classes, were either produced or imported in Nepal. In total, 91,088 kg, 47,694 kg, and 45,671 kg of active ingredients of antimicrobials were available in 2018, 2019, and 2020, respectively. None of the antibiotics were intended for growth promotion, but were primarily for therapeutic purposes. Oxytetracycline, tilmicosin, and sulfadimidine were among the most-used antibiotics in Nepal in 2020. Oxytetracycline was primarily intended for parenteral application, whereas tilmicosin was solely for oral use. Sulfadimidine was available for oral use, except for a small proportion for injection purposes. Aminoglycosides, fluroquinolones, nitrofurans, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines were mostly produced locally, whereas cephalosporins, macrolides and “other” classes of antimicrobials were imported. Amphenicols and penicillins were exclusively imported and nitrofurans were produced locally only. In general, except for tetracyclines, the volume of antimicrobials produced locally and/or imported in 2020 was lower than that in 2018, which corresponded to a decreasing trend in total antimicrobials available. Furthermore, the subsequent years have seen a decrease in the use of critically important antibiotics, particularly class I antibiotics. Finally, this study has firstly established a benchmark for future monitoring of antimicrobial usage in food-producing animals in Nepal. These data are useful for risk analysis, planning, interpreting resistance surveillance data, and evaluating the effectiveness of prudent use, efforts, and mitigation strategies.

Situational Analysis and Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Antimicrobial Use and Resistance among Broiler Poultry Farmers in Nepal

“…In this study, it was observed that 50.1% of farmers purchased antimicrobials directly from the drug sellers, which is consistent with findings from previous studies [23,40]. In comparison, only 33.4% and 10.3% of farmers purchased antimicrobials through prescriptions from veterinarians and para-veterinarians, respectively.…”

“…In comparison, only 33.4% and 10.3% of farmers purchased antimicrobials through prescriptions from veterinarians and para-veterinarians, respectively. There may be instances where farmers voluntarily choose to use antimicrobials, either willingly or influenced by recommendations from drug sellers [21,40]. Additionally, limited access to veterinary services could contribute to farmers seeking advice and medication from non-experts.…”

Antimicrobial resistance of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler, layer, and breeder chickens

“…Multiple antibiotics, including the most R AP and tetracycline, were used for the treatment and prevention of bacterial poultry disease at suboptimal levels, which may be the main cause of the high resistance rates in veterinary practice in Nepal [ 60 ]. The previous study also supports the marked increase in veterinary antibiotic sales in Nepal [ 61 ] in the past few years. In most previous studies, samples were taken from dead chickens infected with colibacillosis, but the use of antibiotics without AST may have resulted in the development of MDR isolates.…”

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices on antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance among poultry practitioner veterinarians

“…The sampling frame of the veterinarian were obtained from the Nepal Veterinary Council. A total of 35 questions were administrated covering Knowledge ( 10 ), Attitude ( 8 ), and Practice ( 15 ). The remaining 12 questions were related to demographic information ( 8 ) and current situation regarding AMU ( 4 ).…”

“…However, the practice of using antimicrobials as growth promoters in animal feed has been banned in livestock production in different countries, including Sweden, Europe, and the United States (5,6). Furthermore, Nepal has banned the use of AMU for growth promoters since 2017 (7,8). The benefits of using antimicrobials in poultry have been shown to decrease disease incidence, morbidity, and mortality rates, improve animal health, and increase productivity, resulting in higher economic returns (9).…”